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Writing task 1

What is the fundamental difference between a graph vs chart?

The fundamental difference lies in their purposes for data representation. A graph is designed to illustrate mathematical relationships or functions, showcasing the connection between variables. Conversely, a chart visually presents data, aiding in comprehending trends or patterns.

Graphs

scatter plots

Line graphs represent how data has changed over time. This type of chart is especially useful when you want to demonstrate connected trends or numbers, such as how sales vary within one year. In this case,

financial vocabulary⁠

will come in handy. Line graphs can also show dependencies between two objects during a particular period.

This type of graph visualizes data as points on a grid connected with a line to represent trends, changes, or relationships between objects, numbers, dates, or other data. These lines show movement over time affected by the increase or decrease in the key factors.

To describe the graph, follow its progress along the horizontal access and describe whether it goes down, up, or stays the same

Essential graph terms

Vertex (or Node): A fundamental unit of a graph, representing a point or an entity.

Edge: A connection between two vertices in a graph, representing a relationship or interaction.

Directed graph (or Digraph): A graph in which edges have a direction, indicating a one-way connection from one vertex to another.

Undirected graph: A graph in which edges have no direction, and the connections between vertices are bidirectional.

Weighted graph: A graph in which each edge is assigned a numerical value or weight, representing a cost, distance, or some other metric.

Degree: The number of edges incident to a vertex. In a directed graph, the degree is often split into in-degree (incoming edges) and out-degree (outgoing edges).

Adjacency: A pair of vertices is said to be adjacent if there is an edge connecting them.

Path: A sequence of vertices where each adjacent pair is connected by an edge.

Cycle: A path that starts and ends at the same vertex, forming a closed loop.

Connected graph: A graph in which there is a path between every pair of vertices.

Disconnected graph: A graph with at least two vertices that do not have a path connecting them.

Subgraph: A graph formed by a subset of the vertices and edges of a larger graph.

Graph traversal: The process of systematically visiting all the vertices and edges of a graph.

Connected components: The maximal connected subgraphs of a graph.

Tree: A connected acyclic graph, where there is exactly one path between any two vertices.

Forest: A collection of disjoint trees or disconnected components.

Graph diameter: The length of the longest shortest path in the graph.

Eulerian graph: A graph in which a single continuous path visits every edge exactly once.

Hamiltonian graph: A graph that contains a Hamiltonian cycle, which is a cycle that visits every vertex exactly once.

Isomorphic graphs: Two graphs are isomorphic if they have the same structure, i.e., the same number of vertices connected in the same way.

Charts

radar charts

Terms of charts

Essential chart terms

Axis: The reference lines on a chart that define the scale of the data. Typically, there’s a horizontal (x-axis) and a vertical (y-axis).

Data series: A set of related data points that are plotted on the chart. Each series is usually represented by a distinct color or symbol.

Data point: An individual value or set of values representing a specific element of the data, plotted on the chart.

Legend: A key that explains the colors or symbols used to represent different data series on the chart.

Title: A descriptive label that provides information about the content or purpose of the chart.

Labels: Descriptive text used to identify and provide context for specific elements on the chart, such as axis labels, data labels, etc.

X-Axis: The horizontal axis on a chart that represents the independent variable or categories of data.

Y-Axis: The vertical axis on a chart that represents the dependent variable or values of the data.

Bar chart: A chart that uses rectangular bars of varying lengths to represent and compare data values.

Line chart: A chart that displays data points using a series of connected line segments, useful for showing trends over time.

Pie chart: A circular chart divided into slices, each representing a proportion of the whole data set.

Scatter plot: A chart that displays individual data points on a two-dimensional graph to show the relationship between two variables.

Area chart: Similar to a line chart but with the area below the line filled with color to represent the cumulative effect of the data.

Stacked bar/Column chart: A bar or column chart in which the various data series are stacked on top of each other.

Histogram: A chart that displays the distribution of a dataset, showing the frequency of different values or ranges.

Doughnut chart: Similar to a pie chart but with a hole in the center, often used to display multiple sets of data.

Bubble chart: A scatter plot in which a third dimension of the data is shown through the size of markers.

Axis scale: The range and increments on an axis, determining how data values are displayed.

Gridlines: Lines on the chart that help in reading values and aligning data points.

Pie chart - a part of whole

Pie charts are designed to visualize how a whole is divided into various parts. Each segment of the pie is a particular category within the total data set. This represents a percentage distribution.

The pie chart primarily illustrates how different parts make up a whole. The best way to present your data in a pie chart is to compare each “slice” of the chart to the others to determine what share of the total each category has

A pie chart shows how a total amount is divided between levels of a categorical variable as a circle divided into radial slices. Each categorical value corresponds with a single slice of the circle, and the size of each slice (both in area and arc length) indicates what proportion of the whole each category level takes.

Pie charts have a fairly narrow use-case that is encapsulated particularly well by its definition. In order to use a pie chart, you must have some kind of whole amount that is divided into a number of distinct parts. Your primary objective in a pie chart should be to compare each group’s contribution to the whole, as opposed to comparing groups to each other. If the above points are not satisfied, the pie chart is not appropriate, and a different plot type should be used instead.

The values that comprise a whole and the categories that divide the whole generally come in two major varieties. First of all, is when the ‘whole’ represents a total count. Examples of this include votes in an election divided by candidate, or number of transactions divided by user type (e.g. guest, new user, existing user).

A second type of ‘whole’ is when the total is a sum over an actual data variable. For example, we might be interested not in the number of transactions, but the monetary total from all transactions. Dividing this total by an attribute like user type, age bracket, or location might provide insights as to where the business is most successful.

If you want to make comparisons between groups rather than from each group to the whole, then you are better off with a different chart type. Even when sorting slices by size, it can be difficult to tell how different two slices are, especially when they move away from the start / end point. In the below example, you might assume that the second slice is larger than the third due to order, but the corresponding bar chart actually shows the opposite. The main thing that you can really say from the pie chart is that both slices are approximately the same proportions from the whole.

⁠

The biggest competition for the pie chart comes from the

bar chart⁠

. Most of the time, you won’t want to use a pie chart – rather, a bar chart will get across the points more compactly and clearly. Many of the issues with pie charts are

solved through the use of a bar chart⁠

. However, bar charts do not immediately sell the part-to-whole comparison, which is pie chart’s major benefit.

Stacked bar chart

On the other hand, the

stacked bar chart⁠

type can prove to be a strong rival to the pie chart in its ability to communicate a part-to-whole comparison. A single stacked bar can be thought of as a pie chart’s slices rolled out into a rectangular form. The rectangular form also makes it easier to compare categorical breakdowns across different groups. However, pie charts still have an advantage in

familiarity and aesthetics⁠

, so they’re still worth having in mind for the part-to-whole comparison use case.

⁠

Waffle chart

Another alternative to the pie chart is the waffle chart, also known as a square chart or square pie. A waffle chart comprises 100 icons, typically squares laid out in a 10 x 10 grid. Each icon represents 1% of the data, and the icons are colored based on the categorical distribution of the data. While there will need to be some rounding of category amounts to fit the plot structure – never split icons in this plot – it can be a way of making the relative proportions for each category easier to read.

⁠

Bar

Bar graphs are used to show relationships between different data series that are independent of each other. In this case, the height or length of the bar indicates the measured value or frequency. Below is an example of a bar graph, the most widespread visual for presenting statistical data.

Bar graphs transform the data into separate bars or columns. Generally, these visuals have categories on the x-axis and the numbers on the y-axis. This allows you to compare statistical data between different groups over time.

Bar graphs also show which category is the largest or the smallest. Each group is independent so that the changes in one do not influence others. The bars or columns can either be drawn vertically or horizontally, as it doesn’t make any difference.

To describe the graph, follow the trend from left to right. Then explain if it goes down, up, or stays the same. The words used to describe bar charts are similar to the ones used for the line charts.

Diagram

A diagram is a plan, drawing, or outline that illustrates how separate parts work and overlap at the connecting points.

Tables

Maps

Heatmaps

Diagrams

Пишем про ВСЕ стадии. ВСЁ, что на рисунке должно быть в ответе (пример был на предыдущих 2-х слайдах)

Структура такая же, как и в графиках: 1§ Introduction: Paraphrase the Task (1 sentence) The diagram illustrates how ... is produced. The diagram highlights the process by which ... is produced. The diagram illustrates the steps involved in producing/manufacturing ...

Introduction: The diagram highlights the process by which ... is/are produced. The diagram illustrates how ... is/are produced. The diagram illustrates the steps involved in producing / manufacturing / making ...

Overview: Overall, there are eight stages in the process starting from ... and ending with... It is a complicated process involving manual labour and machinery.

2§ Overview: (2-3 предложения) Пишем сколько стадий в процессе и называем первую и последнюю. Можно также написать общие слова, описывающие процесс (complex, complicated, time-consuming если дано время): Overall, there are eight stages in the process starting from ... and ending with ... It is a complicated process involving manual labour and machinery. Overall, there are eight stages in the process, beginning with the digging up of clay and ending with delivery.

2§ Overview: (2-3 предложения) Изучаете процесс и отвечаете на эти вопросы: 1) Сколько всего стадий? Дано ли время? Дни или часы? 2) Какое сырьё (raw materials)? 3) Какое оборудование (specialized equipment/machinery)? 4) Включены ли люди в процесс (manual labour)? Обычно процесс покажет 2-3 ответа на некоторые из этих вопросов. Вы пишите ответы в overview в 2-3 предложения. Если у вас 2 картинки как в cement/concrete production, то лучше сравнить эти 2 процесса: какой легче/сложнее?

Body Paragraphs: Regarding the first diagram, ... (if there are two diagrams in the task) The first step is that ... Subsequently, ... The following step is that ... At this point, ... At the fifth stage in the process ... ... and then ... Initially, ... Initially, ... After that, ... Next, ... Subsequently, ... is afterwards put into ... Following this, ... Finally, ...

3§ Main Steps (3-5 предложений) Пишем про стадии процесса (3-4 стадии), используем страдательный залог (water is evaporated) и соединяем словами связками: The first step is that ... Initially, ... Subsequently, ... After the ___ stage, ... The following step is that ... After that, ... Next, ... 4§ Main Steps (3-5 предложений) Тут остальные стадии/ступени процесса + страдательный залог и соединяем словами связками: Subsequently, ... ... and then ... Following this, ... Finally, ...

⁠

Как перефразировать слово “stage”? - The phase - The step ГЛАГОЛЫ для любого процесса: - undergo (the material undergoes refinement in a smelting cabin) - go thorough - pass through (clay passes through four stages ...) - go into ...

the Passive ... is used to make the bricks This clay is then placed onto a ... ... sand and water are added to the clay ... ... could be added ... ... have been placed ... Use these structures with Passive Voice to make your answer more advanced: Once the ... has/have been ... (verb 3), they are then ... Например: Once the tea leaves have been packed into boxes, they are then delivered to a factory to be processed.

Use these structures with Passive Voice to make your answer more advanced: After being ... verb 3), the ... are then ... Например: After being taken to supermarkets, the boxes of tea are then sold to customers.

• Add extra details: The tea leaves are put in the sun, so that they can be dried The sun shines which help the plants to grow. Salt and sugar are added to the tomatoes, which gives them extra flavour. The sugar cane is delivered to factories in order to be made into sugar for cooking.

Logic how to approach analysis

Before you start writing:

Pay attention to whether you have percentages (5%, 10%) or numbers (hundreds, thousands, etc.) Look at the time period. It can refer to the present, past or future. Your choice of tenses should depend on that. Select what you should highlight and compare and what you can skip.

Structure

Use this structure to get a high score for task achievement:

Paragraph 1. Introduction. (≈20 words)

Say what the diagram shows Paraphrase the task Don’t add any statistics

Paragraph 2. Body paragraph.* (≈110 words)

Analyse the information given Highlight the main features/trends Make comparisons where relevant Add exact percentages/numbers/years. Be as precise as possible.

Add words such as “about/approximately” or “just over (under)/almost/nearly” before the numbers if you don’t give precise figures.

* Add more paragraphs in the main body if necessary.

Paragraph 3. Summary. (≈20 words)

Shortly paraphrase key ideas from the body paragraph(s) Don’t add any statistics

Tenses

Verb tenses

When describing graphs, you must also be careful about grammar, especially when choosing the verb tense. When you look at the graph, ask yourself these questions:

Is this data from the past, present, or future?

Does this graph represent the same point in time?

Is this graph predicting the future?

Bar chart 1 shows data from the past, so we would use the

English past simple⁠

. For example, “Sales of SUVs increased between 2005 and 2015, then dropped by 2020.”

Bar chart 2 shows data from the past and present, so we would use the

English present perfect⁠

. For example, “Sales of trucks have slowly risen since 2020.”

Bar chart 3 shows data predictions for the future, so we would use the

English future simple⁠

. For example, “We expect sales of vans will decrease starting in 2025.”

Grammar structures

Use other grammatical structures to compare:

Examples: Twice this number.../ Twice as many people ... / … (not) as popular as ...

Be mindful of grammar mistakes

Use quantifiers correctly:

Countable nouns: many/a lot of, (a) few, a number of (people) Uncountable nouns: much/a lot of, (a) little, an amount of (money)

Examples: only a few respondents... /very little money was spent on.../ a large number of students...

Collocations & words (verbs, adverbs, adjectives, nouns)

Introduction

The .... compare the amount of

The presented .... compare the percentile distribution of

The given ... provide data on ...

The ...... chart above depicts the distribution of ...... for a .....

The presented .... provides an overview of the various .... contributing to ..... in the ....

in .... over two separate years: ... and ...

The .... highlights ... key factors: ....

This graph shows the relationship between X and Y.

This diagram is a visual representation of the process for…

This chart uses data from the Z Database.

The data in this graph is from 2020.

This chart indicates that…

Overview

Overall, ...

Body paragraphs

It is clear that ... / It can be seen that ...

The largest proportion, representing ...% of the overall ....

According to the data ... / It is noticeable that ...

We can see that ....., represented by the first ..... slice, has just less than half of the .......

..... is in second, with about a third of the ....., while ..... is last, with about a fifth of the ......

..... is the second most prevalent ..., accounting for ...% of .... cases.

Contributing to ...% of the......

Lastly, ...... encompass ...% of the .....

By contrast, a mere 8% of the ....

makes up a massive 69% , but only 17% and 28% of water ..... respectively.

..... represents 60% and 39% of total .....

... the figure for .... is 10% higher, at 33%.

55% - more than half 50% - half 35% - more than a third 25% - a quarter 20% - a fifth 77% - just over three quarters 77% - approximately three quarters 49% - just under a half 49% - nearly a half 32% - almost a third 75%-85% - a very large majority 65%-75% - a significant proportion 10%-15% - a minority 5% - a very small number

Various

mix of (sources. reason etc.)

can be attributed to the ......

.... highlight the

.... accounts for the vast majority of ........

⁠

to compare

compared to

as opposed to

versus

more than

the majority of

only a small monitory

greater than

less than

⁠

- per cent/percent (used after a number) About seventy per cent of the population of Singapore is of Chinese ancestry. - percentage (used without numbers) A large percentage of Canada ' s electricity is generated by hydroelectric power. - proportion A larger proportion of the national budget is spent on the military than on anything else. - segment Only a small segment of the population agrees with this idea.

- fraction A tiny fraction of the total number of applicants to this university are accepted. - a significant majority A significant majority of the roads in this district are unpaved. a large percentage - a small percentage Only a small percentage of earthquakes cause major damage.

⁠

Verbs: rise, increase, grow, go up to, climb, boom, peak, fall, decline, decrease, drop, dip, go down, reduce, level up, remain stable, no change, remain steady, stay constant, stay, maintain the same level, crash, collapse, plunge, plummet.

Adjectives: sharp, rapid, huge, dramatic, substantial, considerable, significant, slight, small, minimal, massive.

Adverbs: dramatically, rapidly, hugely, massive, sharply, steeply, considerably, substantially, significantly, slightly, minimally, markedly, quickly, swiftly, suddenly, steadily, gradually, slowly.

⁠

The vertical axis shows…

The horizontal axis represents…

This curve illustrates…

The solid line shows…

The shaded area describes…

This colored segment is for…

The red bar…

⁠

Let me show you this bar graph…

Let’s turn to this diagram…

I’d like you to look at this map…

If you look at this graph, you will notice…

Let’s have a look at this pie chart…

If you look at this line chart, you will understand…

To illustrate my point, let’s look at some charts…

⁠

Use at least 3-5 linkers, for example:

Adding information: moreover, furthermore, in addition, finally Showing cause and effect: therefore, consequently, as a result, in order to Comparing & contrasting things: however, whereas, while, on the other hand, despite, in spite of, likewise, in contrast Comparing time: while, meanwhile, at the same time, at this point, first, second, third, last Summarizing: overall, on the whole, to sum up, in summary Illustrating a point: for example, for instance, such as, including, namely

Use these phrases to introduce new paragraphs:

Turning to the … Looking at the … According to the ... Regarding the ... From the … it is clear that ... It can be seen from … that …

TIPS on Vocabulary

Avoid repetition by using synonyms:

a share/ proportion/ percentage of … data/statistics numbers/figures to show/illustrate to provide/give information about about/approximately to account for/make up/comprise (5%) a significant/considerable (number of...) the main/top/dominant …

Replace some numbers by words:

98% -> almost all 90% -> a vast majority 75% -> three-quarters 50% -> a half 33% -> a third 25% -> a quarter 20% -> a fifth 10% -> a tenth 5% -> a small minority

* 9 in (out of) 10 = 90%, 8 in (out of) 10 = 80%, etc.

Use adjectives and adverbs to make your vocabulary range wider:

a large/small number/share of... a major/minor/clear (difference between/in terms of...) a much/slightly lower/higher (figure for...) a vast majority of... a small minority of... significantly/considerably (smaller) slightly (higher) to differ greatly

Use vocabulary to compare & order:

with a …% difference between ... similarity with regard to... to contrast with... … came in second place after … equal/similar numbers … … followed in second place by …

If there are changes over time, describe them using such phrases as “there was a dramatic growth, ...increased significantly”.

⁠

Use ordinal numbers

Examples: the second/third most popular choice is …/every fifth person chose … (=20%)

Use comparative adjectives

Example: Reading paper books was less/more common than reading e-books.

Use superlative adjectives:

Examples: the highest/lowest proportion of … / the most/least desirable item was …

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