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12. War and Revolution (Milestones of Century)

Second World War (1937-1945)

genuinely global, even more than World War I (Great War)

independent origins in both Asia and Europe

dissatisfied states sought to fundamentally alter the international arrangements from World War I

many Japanese (like in Italy and Germany) felt frustrated by Britain and United States

sought empires that they regarded as essential

national greatness

economic well-being

Asia: Japan vs. China and America

World War II began in Asia before it occurred in Europe

Growing Japanese imperial ambitions

late 1920s-1930s

military became more powerful in Japan’s political life

earlier cultural cosmopolitanism gave way to more nationalist sentiments

initial problem: rise of Chinese nationalism

seemed to threaten Japan’s sphere of influence in Manchuria (acquired after Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905)

military seized control of Manchuria; established puppet state called Manchukuo

condemned by China, United States, League of Nations

no effective military response

prompted Japan to withdraw from League of Nations; allied more closely with Germany and Italy in 1936

relations with increasingly nationalist China deteriorated further

led to full-scale attack on heartland China in 1937

escalated World War II in Asia: bitter conflict that would last another eight years

National survival

felt increasingly isolated, surrounded, threatened

anti-Japanese immigration policies in United States convinced some Japanese that racism prevented the West from acknowledging Japan as an equal power

Japan dependent on foreign, especially American, sources of strategic goods (e.g. oil) even as United States were becoming more hostile to Japanese ambitions

Western imperialist powers (British, French, Dutch) controlled resource-rich colonies in Southeast Asia

Soviet Union proclaimed alien communist ideology; loomed in northern Asia

Freeing Japan from dependence

1940-1941: Japan extended military operations to French, British, Dutch, American colonies of Southeast Asia

Malaya, Burma, Indonesia, Indochina, Philippines

wanted to acquire the resources that would free it from dependence on the West

Japan presented themselves as liberators and modernizers

wanted to create an “Asia for Asians”

hoped to free their continent from European and American dominance

soon reality became clear

Japan’s concern was more for Asia’s resources than its liberation

Japanese rule exceeded Europeans in brutality

Pearl Harbor attack

attack on United States in Hawaii; December 1941

authorities were reluctant

only occurred after

negotiations to end American hostility to Japan’s empire-building proved fruitless

American oil embargo imposed on Japan (July 1941)

Japanese authorities felt that their alternatives for their country were:

acceptance of American terms: feared would reduce Japan to second- or third-rank

war with uncertain outcome: decided on with foreboding

United States entered war

began struggle that ended only with use of atomic bombs against Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945)

Japan allied with Germany and Italy; Pearl Harbor joined ongoing conflict in Europe into single global struggle

Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, Japan

Allied Powers: United States, Britain, Soviet Union

Europe: Germany vs. Allied Powers

many Germans had deep resentments about their country’s position internationally

defeated in World War I

harsh terms of Treaty of Versailles

start of World War II in Europe helped by:

Nazis pledging to rectify treaty’s perceived injustices

initial unwillingness of Britain, France, Soviet Union to forcefully confront that aggression

Territorial expansion

Hitler rearmed country for war and expanded Germany’s territories

annexed Austria and German-speaking parts of Czechoslovakia

conference in Munich: British and French reluctantly blessed his actions; hoped that this “appeasement” could satisfy his demands and avoid all-out war

September 1, 1939: Germany unleashed a devastating attack on Poland → Britain and France declared war on Germany

France: quickly defeated

Britain: Germans launched destructive air war

Soviet Union: faced Germany’s war machine in 1941

most of Europe became under Nazi control

Differences to Word War I

not welcomed with massive enthusiasm across Europe

bitter experience of Great War suggested that only suffering laid ahead

conduct of the wars

First: trench warfare emphasizing defense

Second: German tactic of blitzkrieg (lightning war) coordinated rapid movement of infantry, tanks, airpower over very large areas

Counterattack

Germany’s military tactics initially successful

German forces, aided by Italy, swept over Europe, western Soviet Union, North Africa

1942: Soviet Union absorbed German onslaught and began to counterattack, moving westwards towards German heartland

United States joined struggle in 1942

led invasion of northern France in 1944

opened long-awaited second front in struggle against Hitler’s Germany

these two huge military movements defeated Germany in May 1945

Impacts

Destruction

most destructive conflict in world history

total deaths ~60 million (6x more than World War I)

half of casualties were civilians

new warfare technologies

heavy bombers

jet fighters

missiles

atomic weapons

blurring of traditional line between civilian and military targets; entire cities and whole populations defined as the enemy

Soviet Union: 40% of total deaths

25 million deaths

equal number made homeless

thousands of towns, villages, industrial enterprises destroyed

China: 15 million deaths and uncounted refugees

due to prolonged Chinese resistance and Japanese killing every person and animal in many villages

Rape of Nanjing (1937-1938): 200,000 to 300,000 Chinese civilians killed; often mutilated or sexually assaulted

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