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4. The Mongol Moment and the Remaking of Eurasia

Encountering the Mongols

represented cultural encounter between pastoralists and settled civilizations of Eurasia

varied considerably across Eurasian domains of empire

process of conquest

length, nature of Mongol rule

impact on local people

extent of Mongol assimilation into cultures

decline or collapse during 14th/15th created environment for new states, empires to emerge that revived older cultural, political traditions

China

most difficult, extended conquest (1209-1279, 70 years)

Invasion

began in northern China

ruled for several centuries by various pastoral dynasties

destruction, plunder on massive scale

southern China was less violent

controlled by Song dynasty

more concerned with accommodating local population

landowners guaranteed their estates in exchange for support/neutrality

outcome: unification of divided China

treasured ideal among educated Chinese

persuaded some that Mongols had been granted Mandate of Heaven and were legitimate despite being foreign

Accommodation

initially wanted to exterminate everyone in northern China, turn land into pastureland

Great Khan Ogodei in 1230s

rejected

instead, extract as much wealth as possible from China’s advanced civilization

had to accommodate Chinese culture, ways of governing

Mongols had no experience with operating complex agrarian society

adapted:

administrative practices

taxation techniques

postal system

gave selves Chinese dynastic title: Yuan

suggested new beginning in Chinese history

some learned calligraphy/appreciated poetry

moved capital from Karakorum (Mongolia) to Khanbalik (Beijing), “city of the khan”

Kubilai Khan

grandson of Chinggis

ruled from 1271 to 1294

initiated Yuan dynasty

ordered Chinese-style ancestral tablets to honor ancestors, posthumously gave them Chinese names

policies similar to benevolent Confucian-inspired emperor

improved roads

built canals

lowered some taxes

patronized scholars, artists

limited death penalty, torture

supported peasant agriculture

prohibited Mongols from grazing on peasants’ farmland

Religion

used traditional Confucian rituals

supported building of some Daoist temples

attracted to Tibetan Buddhism

returned with strong political support for invaders

Resentment

harsh, exploitative, foreign, resented

Political

some Mongol officials, Muslim intermediaries treated Chinese “just like slaves” (according to Marco Polo)

bribes for services

arbitrary executions

seizing women at will

royal family, court could continue to experience steppe life

animals roamed freely in large open areas, planted with steppe grass

many elite preferred to live, eat, sleep, give birth in traditional tents

ignored traditional Chinese examination system

relied heavily on foreigners for officials (particularly Muslims)

Social

forbade intermarriage

prohibited Chinese scholars from learning Mongol script

women never adopted foot binding

women scandalized Chinese by mixing freely with men, riding to hunt with husbands

Mongol tradition of relying heavily on female advisors

Collapse

lasted little more than a century

by mid-14th: Mongols forced out of China

intense factionalism

rapidly rising prices

furious epidemics of plague

growing peasant rebellions

1368: rebels triumphed, thousands of Mongols returned to homeland, replaced by native Chinese Ming dynasty

Aftermath

Cultural

early: attempted to eliminate all signs of foreign rule

discouraged use of Mongol names, dress

promoted Confucian learning, orthodox gender roles

emperor Yongle sponsored Encyclopedia of 11,000 volumes

contributions from over 2000 scholars

summarize or compile all previous writing

history

geography

philosophy

ethics

government

Beijing: Forbidden City

ordered by Yongle

magnificent imperial residence

Temple of Heaven

subsequent rulers performed Confucian-based rituals to ensure wellbeing of Chinese society

two empresses wrote instructions for female behavior (traditional expectations)

looking to past

Political

reestablished civil service exam

highly centralized government

power concentrated in emperor

cadre of eunuchs (castrated men) personally loyal to emperor had great authority

dismay of official bureaucrats

acted vigorously to repair damage of Mongol years

restored millions of acres to cultivation

rebuilt canals, reservoirs, irrigation works

planted a billion trees to reforest China

result

economy rebounded

domestic, international trade flourished

population grew

Yongle sought to extend Chinese power, prestige into Indian Ocean by dispatching

several enormous fleets⁠

⁠

Persia

major agricultural civilization

modern Iran

heartland of dynamic, sophisticated Islamic civilization

incorporated around 900 CE without losing cultural distinctiveness, language

impact on Islam equally profound as influenced

administrative, bureaucratic techniques

court practices

palaces

gardens

garments

arts

architecture

poetry

music

painting

Invasion

more abrupt than China

first (1219-1221) led by Chinggis Khan

second (1251-1258) by grandson Hulegu, who became first il-khan (subordinate khan) of Persia

shocking to people accustomed to progressive expansion of Islamic rule

brought ferocity, slaughter that had no parallel in Persian experience

sacking of Baghdad (1258) involved massacre of over 200,000 people

Economic impact

Negative

heavy taxes pushed large numbers of peasants off land

sometimes collected 20 or 30 times a year

often under torture, whipping

Mongol migration turned agricultural land into pasture, desert

irrigation neglected, agricultural land wasted

Positive

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