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4. The Mongol Moment and the Remaking of Eurasia
Encountering the Mongols
represented
cultural encounter between pastoralists and settled civilizations
of Eurasia
varied considerably
across Eurasian domains of empire
process of conquest
length, nature of Mongol rule
impact on local people
extent of Mongol assimilation into cultures
decline or collapse during 14th/15th created
environment for new states, empires to emerge
that
revived older cultural, political traditions
China
most difficult, extended conquest
(1209-1279, 70 years)
Invasion
began in
northern China
ruled for several centuries by
various pastoral dynasties
destruction, plunder on massive scale
southern China
was
less violent
controlled by
Song dynasty
more concerned with
accommodating local population
landowners
guaranteed their estates
in exchange for
support/neutrality
outcome:
unification of divided China
treasured ideal
among educated Chinese
persuaded some that
Mongols had been granted Mandate of Heaven
and were legitimate despite being foreign
Accommodation
initially
wanted to exterminate everyone in northern China
,
turn land into pastureland
Great Khan Ogodei in 1230s
rejected
instead,
extract as much wealth as possible
from China’s advanced civilization
had to
accommodate Chinese culture, ways of governing
Mongols had
no experience with operating complex agrarian society
adapted:
administrative practices
taxation techniques
postal system
gave selves Chinese dynastic title: Yuan
suggested
new beginning
in Chinese history
some
learned calligraphy/appreciated poetry
moved capital from Karakorum (Mongolia) to
Khanbalik
(Beijing), “city of the khan”
Kubilai Khan
grandson of Chinggis
ruled from 1271 to 1294
initiated Yuan dynasty
ordered Chinese-style
ancestral tablets to honor ancestors
, posthumously
gave them Chinese names
policies similar to
benevolent Confucian-inspired emperor
improved
roads
built
canals
lowered some taxes
patronized scholars, artists
limited death penalty, torture
supported
peasant agriculture
prohibited Mongols from grazing on peasants’ farmland
Religion
used
traditional Confucian rituals
supported
building of some Daoist temples
attracted to
Tibetan Buddhism
returned with
strong political support
for invaders
Resentment
harsh, exploitative, foreign, resented
Political
some Mongol officials, Muslim intermediaries
treated Chinese “just like slaves”
(according to Marco Polo)
bribes
for services
arbitrary executions
seizing women
at will
royal family, court could continue to experience steppe life
animals roamed freely
in large open areas, planted with steppe grass
many elite preferred to live, eat, sleep, give birth in
traditional tents
ignored traditional Chinese examination system
relied heavily on
foreigners for officials
(particularly Muslims)
top decision-making posts were Mongols
most
did not learn Chinese
law discriminated against Chinese
(most severe punishments)
honored and supported merchants, artisans
more than Confucian bureaucrats
Social
forbade intermarriage
prohibited Chinese scholars from learning Mongol
script
women
never adopted foot binding
women
scandalized Chinese
by mixing freely with men, riding to hunt with husbands
Mongol tradition of
relying heavily on female advisors
Collapse
lasted
little more than a century
by mid-14th:
Mongols forced out of China
intense factionalism
rapidly rising prices
furious epidemics of plague
growing peasant rebellions
1368: rebels triumphed,
thousands of Mongols returned to homeland
, replaced by native Chinese
Ming dynasty
Aftermath
Cultural
early:
attempted to eliminate all signs of foreign rule
discouraged use of Mongol
names, dress
promoted
Confucian learning, orthodox gender roles
emperor Yongle sponsored
Encyclopedia of 11,000 volumes
contributions from
over 2000 scholars
summarize or compile all previous writing
history
geography
philosophy
ethics
government
more
Beijing: Forbidden City
ordered by Yongle
magnificent
imperial residence
China
Invasion
Accommodation
Kubilai Khan
Religion
Resentment
Political
Social
Collapse
Aftermath
Cultural
Political
Persia
Invasion
Economic impact
Negative
Positive
Accommodation
Collapse
Aftermath
Safavid Empire
Russia
Invasion
Lack of occupation
Accommodation
Impact on cities
Impact on Mongols
Impact on Russians
Collapse
Aftermath
Political
Religious
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