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13. Changing Global Landscape (Milestones of Century)

East vs. West

communist regimes launched global conflict
restructured international life
touched lives of almost everyone
rift began soon after Russian Revolution
new communist government became source of fear and loathing to many in Western capitalist world
common threat of Nazi Germany temporarily made allies of Soviet Union, Britain, United States
after World War II ended, division erupted in cold war
cold war: avoidance of direct military conflict; arms race in nuclear weapons
geopolitical and ideological realities of postwar world
Soviet Union and United States were world’s major political and military powers (replaced diminished states of Western Europe)
represented sharply opposed views
history
politics
international relations
both sides felt like they were leading historical progress

Military conflict and Cold War

Europe

Eastern Europe: differing goals
Soviet: insisted on security and control
American, British: wanted to open and democratic societies with ties to capitalist world economy
rival military alliances
NATO (1949)
United States and various Western European countries
defend themselves against threat of Soviet aggression
Warsaw Pact (1955)
Soviet Union and East European communist countries
counterweight to NATO; prevent Western influence in communist bloc
created spheres of influence
Western Europe: largely voluntary American sphere
Eastern Europe: imposed Soviet sphere
Iron Curtain: heavily-fortified border between Eastern and Western Europe
no shooting war occurred between the two sides

Asia

extension of communism into Asia globalized cold war
China
Korea
Vietnam
destructive and prolonged “hot wars”
Korea
1950: North Korea invaded South Korea
led to both Chinese and American involvement in a war (1950-1953)
ended in standoff that left Korean peninsula still divided in early 21st
Vietnam
military efforts by South Vietnamese communists and already communist North Vietnamese government to unify country
massive American intervention (1960s)
believed communist victory would lead to further communist expansion in Asia and beyond
Vietnamese communists beat Americans
Vietnamese armed and supported by Soviets and Chinese
Americans diminished by growing protest at home
1975: Vietnam united under communist control

Afghanistan

Marxist party took power in 1978
Soviet action alienated conservative Muslim country
radical land reforms
efforts to liberate Afghan women
Soviet forces intervened militarily
feared overthrow of new communist state
did not want it to be replaced by Islamic radicals
war was “bleeding wound” (1979-1989)
sustained in part by U.S. aid to Afghan guerrillas
Soviets faced widespread international pressure; withdrew in 1989
Afghan communist regime soon collapsed
Mujahideen
Marxist government lacked popular support but had close ties with Soviet Union
when tribal groups revolted, Soviet Union invaded
Mujahideen (Arabic: “the strugglers”)
used guerrilla-style tactics against Soviet troops
received financial aid and supplies from American government
1988: Soviets removed troops from Afghanistan
created power vacuum
resulted in civil war and eventual rise of extremist groups like Taliban

Cuba

1960s:
communist regime under Fidel Castro
⁠
⁠
intense American hostility
Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev (after Stalin) secretly deployed nuclear-tipped Soviet missiles to Cuba
believed that the missiles would deter further U.S. action against Castro
discovered Oct. 1962; American forces blockaded island and prepared for invasion
compromise between Khrushchev and U.S. president John F. Kennedy to avoid nuclear exchange
Soviets removed missiles from Cuba
Americans promised not to invade Cuba
communist regime persisted in Cuba

Cuban Revolution

Anastas Mikoyan (1960): “You Americans must realize what Cuba means to us old Bolsheviks. We have been waiting all our lives for a country to go communist without the Red Army. It has happened in Cuba, and it makes us feel like boys again”
surprising that Cuba became Marxist state due to proximity to United States
virtual protectorate after independence from Spain (1902)
U.S. companies had considerable influence over its government
Fidel Castro (son of wealthy sugar plantation owner) led successful insurrection
1953: Cuban army attacked two army barracks in first major military operation
defeated Castro and 123 of supporters
Castro captured, sentenced to jail, released into exile
1956: Castro slipped back into Cuba; brought opponents of regime together
armed nationalist insurgency
dedicated to radical economic and social reform
1959: seized power
effectively redistributed 15% of nation’s wealth within a year
granted land to poor
increased wages
lowered rent
following year: government nationalized property of both wealthy Cubans and U.S. corporations; many Cubans (especially elite) fled into exile
economic and political pressure from United States; culminated in Bay of Pigs (1961)
failed invasion by Cuban exiles with covert support from U.S.
American hostility pushed Castro closer to Soviet Union; began to see self as Marxist
Soviet leader Khrushcehv deployed nuclear missiles; sparked Cuban missile crisis
Cuba sought to expand its brand of revolutions
especially in Latin America and Africa
supported revolutionary movements in many regions
none succeeded in creating lasting Cuban-style regime
impact of Cuban Revolution is mixed
new government devoted considerable resources to improve health and education
mid-1980s: Cuba possessed highest literacy rate and lowest infant mortality rate in Latin American
life expectancy increased from 58 to 73 (similar to United States)
living standards improved
earlier promises to establish truly democratic system never materialized
Castro: elections unneeded because “this democracy...has found its expression, directly, in the intimate union and identification of the government with the people”
state placed limits on free expression; arrested or exiled opponents
failed to achieve originally-envisioned economic development
sugar remained chief export crop
1980s: Cuba almost as economically dependent on Soviet Union as it had been by United States
after collapse of Soviet Union, Cuban economy shrank by a third

Nuclear standoff; third-world rivalry

Nuclear arms races

most novel, dangerous part of Cold War: arms race in nuclear weapons (e.g. Cuban missile crisis)
initial American monopoly on nuclear weapons
Soviet Union redoubled efforts to acquire them; succeeded in 1949
next 40 years: handful of nuclear weapons to almost 60,000
delivery systems
submarines
bomber aircraft
missiles
could rapidly propel warheads across continents
accuracies measured in hundreds of feet

Lack of shooting war

due to awareness of the power they hold; will only produce losers and catastrophe
1949: Stalin observed that “atomic weapons can hardly be used without spelling the end of the world”
both sides carefully avoided further nuclear provocation while continuing to build up their arsenals
implicitly agreed to avoid direct military confrontation because they feared a conventional war would escalate to nuclear

Indirect conflicts

both sides courted countries emerging from colonial rule
military and economic aid
educational opportunities
political pressure
covert action
Soviet Union aided anti-colonial and revolutionary movements
South Africa
Mozambique
Vietnam
Cuba
U.S. feared communist penetration; intervened
Iran
Philipppines
Military conflict and Cold War
Europe
Asia
Afghanistan
Cuba
Cuban Revolution
Nuclear standoff; third-world rivalry
Nuclear arms races
Lack of shooting war
Indirect conflicts
Superpowers and Cold War
U.S. as superpower
Turmoil in communist states
Eastern Europe
Soviet Union v. China
Communism’s global presence
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