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Stever’s work is grounded in attachment theory and evolutionary psychology. Her key claims include:
Parasocial attachment is a subset of parasocial relationships (PSRs), characterized by felt security and safe haven, similar to real-life attachments. Media exposure creates psychological proximity, allowing viewers to form emotional bonds with media figures even without face-to-face interaction. Parasocial attachments are adaptive, not pathological, for most people. They fulfill social and emotional needs in a media-saturated world. She uses The Media Equation (Reeves & Nass, 1996) to explain why people respond to media figures as if they were real. Key Points from the Paper:
Parasocial Attachment as an Evolutionary Outcome
- Stever argues that parasocial attachment is not abnormal or pathological, but rather a predictable and adaptive response to the modern media environment. Just as humans evolved to form attachments to caregivers and social groups, they now form similar emotional bonds with media figures due to frequent exposure. Emotional Dependence and Attachment Theory
Drawing from Bowlby’s and Ainsworth’s attachment theory, Stever explains that parasocial attachments can serve the same psychological functions as real-life attachments—providing a sense of security, emotional regulation, and companionship. This is especially true when individuals lack secure interpersonal relationships. Media Equation Theory
Stever incorporates the Media Equation Theory (Reeves & Nass, 1996), which posits that people respond to media as if it were real life. This helps explain why viewers can develop genuine emotional dependence on media personae, even when they know the relationship is one-sided. Positive and Negative Outcomes
While many parasocial attachments support positive functioning (e.g., emotional support, identity development), Stever acknowledges that in some cases, they can lead to confusion between real and imagined relationships, potentially resulting in emotional dysfunction or obsessive behaviors. Cultural Normalization of Parasocial Bonds
In a media-saturated society, parasocial attachments are commonplace and socially normalized, especially in fan cultures. Stever suggests that celebrity worship and intense fan devotion are not aberrations, but rather extensions of evolved social behavior in a mediated world.Based on Gayle Stever’s 2017 paper “Evolutionary Theory and Reactions to Mass Media: Understanding Parasocial Attachment”, the main concept she develops is parasocial attachment, which she frames as an evolutionarily expected emotional response to repeated exposure to media figures in a media-saturated environment.
🧠 Implied Hierarchy in PSR Formation (Based on Stever 2017)
Claim: There is a kind of hierarchical progression in the formation of parasocial relationships (PSRs), particularly when they evolve into parasocial attachments. While she doesn’t present a rigid tiered model, her work implies a spectrum or continuum of emotional intensity and psychological involvement.
Parasocial Interaction (PSI) Initial, momentary engagement with a media figure (e.g., watching a video, liking a post). Often casual and fleeting. Parasocial Relationship (PSR) Repeated exposure leads to a sense of familiarity and emotional connection. The viewer begins to feel they “know” the media figure. Still relatively light in emotional intensity. The relationship deepens into emotional dependence. The media figure becomes a source of comfort, emotional regulation, and perceived security. This stage mirrors real-life attachment relationships and is more intense and enduring. Comparison: Agreement and Divergence
🧩 Does Stever Agree with the Model of Attitudes?
Not directly. Stever’s theory is primarily emotional and attachment-based, focusing on psychological safety and proximity. While she acknowledges behavioral and cognitive aspects, her framework does not adopt the attitude model’s structure. Instead, she emphasizes evolutionary and developmental mechanisms for forming emotional bonds with media figures.
🔍 Summary: How Stever’s Theory Aligns with MMPR
🧠 Cognitive Aspects in Stever’s Theory
Perception of Media Figures as Real
Stever draws on the Media Equation Theory (Reeves & Nass, 1996), which posits that people cognitively process media personae as if they were real individuals. This means: Viewers do not differentiate between real-life and mediated interactions. They may believe they “know” the media figure, forming mental representations similar to those of real-life acquaintances. Psychological Proximity
Stever introduces the idea of vicarious or psychological proximity, where individuals feel close to media figures despite no physical interaction. This reflects a cognitive construction of intimacy. Role Model Identification
Viewers may cognitively evaluate media figures as role models, especially when lacking real-life attachment figures. This involves beliefs, judgments, and internalization of values or traits 🏃♀️ Behavioral Aspects in Stever’s Theory
Repeated Media Consumption
Stever emphasizes that repeated exposure to media figures through TV, internet, or social media leads to parasocial attachment. This is a behavioral pattern—actively choosing to engage with specific content. Fan Participation and Co-Creation
She references participatory culture (Jenkins, 2009), where fans: Create fan art, fiction, or commentary. Engage in online communities. Seek interaction with media figures (e.g., tweeting, commenting). Seeking Safe Haven
Behaviorally, individuals may turn to media figures during stress or emotional need, mirroring proximity-seeking behaviors in real-life attachment relationships 🔍 Why This Matters
Stever’s framing helps distinguish between:
General fan interest (PSI/PSR) Emotionally significant bonds that can affect identity, behavior, and mental health (parasocial attachment) This hierarchy is especially relevant in idol worship culture, where fans often move from casual admiration to deep emotional entanglement due to constant digital interaction and curated intimacy.
