In a 2018 paper, Gayle Stever and Riva Tukachinsky proposed a developmental framework for parasocial engagement
This model describes how a parasocial relationship (PSR) progresses through distinct stages, similar to how real-life social relationships evolve. The intensity of parasocial interaction (PSI) changes with each stage.
Stages of a PSR:
Initiation: The audience member has an initial encounter with a media figure. Experimentation: The audience member seeks additional encounters with the media figure to gauge their interest. This stage focuses on breadth rather than depth of experience. Intensification: A more meaningful and deeper bond begins to form. (Emotional bond) Integration: The relationship is established and maintained. Very few audience members reach this stage. Stever and Tukachinsky's work describes a progression rather than a single, static measure, researchers have used existing parasocial scales to study different aspects of parasocial experiences that their framework explores.
Scope: This collaboration provided a macro-level framework that integrated the concepts of parasocial interaction (PSI), PSRs, and PSA into a single, cohesive timeline.
Stever’s 2017 Conceptualization of PSRs
Source: Parasocial Theory: Concepts and Measures Focus: Stever emphasized the distinction between parasocial interaction (PSI) and parasocial relationships (PSR). PSI: The illusion of interaction during media consumption (e.g., feeling like a celebrity is speaking directly to you). PSR: A more enduring, imagined relationship that develops over time with a media persona. Attachment Theory Influence: Introduced the idea of parasocial attachment (PSA), where viewers seek emotional proximity to media figures, similar to interpersonal attachment. Static View: While acknowledging the emotional depth of PSRs, the 2017 model did not yet offer a developmental or stage-based framework. It treated PSRs more as states or types of engagement. The key takeaway from the 2018 model is that PSI, PSR, and PSA are not separate, independent phenomena but rather points along a continuum of parasocial engagement.
Parasocial Interaction (PSI): This is most prevalent and serves a specific function in the earlier stages. It describes the temporary, episode-specific reactions a person has while consuming media. Initiation: PSI is the primary mechanism in this stage, driven by the individual's initial impression and curiosity. Experimentation: PSI continues as the audience member seeks more media encounters to learn about the persona, aiming to reduce uncertainty and explore potential connections. Parasocial Relationship (PSR): This is the core concept of the entire model, representing the growing, long-term bond that results from repeated PSIs. The stages describe the development of the PSR itself. Intensification: The PSR becomes more meaningful and deeper, characterized by stronger emotional investment and the feeling of intimacy with the media figure. Integration: The PSR becomes an established and integral part of the individual's life. At this stage, the most intense form of a PSR, known as PSA, may develop. Parasocial Attachment (PSA): As the most profound and intense form of parasocial engagement, PSA is a feature of the Integration stage for some individuals. Integration: This is where the media figure is treated as a source of "felt security" and is integrated into the individual's identity, representing a full-fledged parasocial attachment. ____
Stages of parasocial relationship (PSR) development
1. Initiation
This is the first encounter with a media figure and the initial phase of PSR formation.
Initial impressions: The media user forms a preliminary disposition toward the figure, largely based on first impressions and schema-based heuristics (e.g., attractiveness, genre expectations). High uncertainty: Because of the limited information, the audience member's perception of the media figure is marked by high uncertainty. Initial parasocial interactions (PSIs) are driven by a need to reduce this uncertainty. Predictors: The move to the next stage is largely determined by basic attraction cues and the initial impression the media figure makes. 2. Experimentation
In this stage, the media user seeks more information and mediated encounters with the media figure to reduce uncertainty and explore their connection.
Breadth over depth: The focus is on increasing the breadth of exposure rather than the depth of the relationship. The user may follow the celebrity on social media, watch more of their work, or seek out interviews. Goals: The relational goal is to move past the initial impression and see if a deeper connection is possible. As the user learns more, their opinions, beliefs, and emotions about the figure develop and strengthen. Outcomes: This stage can lead to stronger social attraction and liking based on shared interests or values discovered during experimentation. 3. Intensification
This stage involves a shift toward a more meaningful and deeper parasocial bond.
Increased disclosure: The media user feels a stronger, more emotional investment in the media figure. They may feel as if they know the figure on a personal level. Relational focus: Cognitive involvement outside of viewing time increases as the user mentally engages with the figure, strengthening the illusion of intimacy and friendship. Creating a relational culture: Similar to real-life relationships, the individual may feel a sense of a "private relational culture," where the media figure is an integral part of their daily mental life. 4. Integration
This is the most advanced stage of PSRs, where the relationship is fully established and maintained. Very few people reach this level of engagement.
Merging identity: The media figure's persona becomes deeply integrated into the individual's life and identity. They may feel a sense of interdependence or even parasocial attachment (PSA), where the figure becomes a source of "felt security". Maintaining the bond: Behaviors in this stage focus on maintaining the established relationship. The media user has a realistic perspective of the figure, acknowledging both positive and negative attributes, yet the deep connection persists. Parasocial attachment: While not all individuals at this stage develop full-blown parasocial attachment, this is the stage where a true PSA, with its components of "secure base" and "safe haven," is most likely to form. Summary table of PSR stages
AI responses may include mistakes. (PDF) Theorizing development of parasocial experiences.
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6.3 Developing and Maintaining Romantic Relationships
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About Tukachinsky's earlier scale in 2010
Multiple Parasocial Relationships Scale (MPRS): Developed by Tukachinsky (2011), this scale is based on the idea that individuals can form multiple types of parasocial relationships, mirroring real-life relationships like friendships and romantic love. This scale is highly relevant, as Tukachinsky was a co-author on the 2018 framework. About Gayle Stever's earlier work in 2017
Before the 2018 framework, Stever developed a system for classifying media fans based on their motivations and levels of engagement. This qualitative work, published in 2013, identified nine fan motivations and five engagement levels. This research informs the developmental view of parasocial engagement.
Core argument: The ability to form parasocial attachments expands the pool of potential attachment figures, which can be either adaptive or maladaptive depending on the context. Scope: This work explored the endpoint of a parasocial relationship—the profound bond or attachment—rather than the full process of how it forms. Key focus: PSA, a nonreciprocated bond with a media figure that provides a sense of "felt security," similar to real-life attachment figures Definitions in Stever's 2017 work
Stever's 2017 work, Parasocial Theory: Concepts and Measures, differentiated the core concepts as follows:
PSI (Parasocial Interaction): The one-sided illusion of an immediate, social interaction with a media figure during media exposure. It is a temporary, episode-specific experience, like feeling a connection with a television personality while watching their show. PSR (Parasocial Relationship): A long-term, ongoing perceived connection with a media figure that persists outside of media exposure. It represents the accumulation of repeated PSIs over time, leading to a sense of friendship or familiarity. PSA (Parasocial Attachment): A deeper, more intense stage of a PSR, where the media figure becomes a source of "felt security" and "safe haven" for the individual. This concept is based on evolutionary and attachment theory, where the media figure is treated like a real-life attachment figure. Stages and subconstructs
In her 2017 work, Stever did not formalize stages of development, instead presenting the progression from PSI to PSR to PSA as an increase in intensity. The multi-stage developmental model was not published until the 2018 paper with Tukachinsky.
However, the 2017 paper did introduce subconstructs for PSA based on characteristics of real-life attachments:
Proximity-seeking: In PSA, this is demonstrated by repeatedly consuming media featuring the personae to maintain a sense of closeness. Secure base: The media figure acts as a "secure base," providing comfort that allows the individual to navigate their real life. Safe haven: The media figure offers comfort and security in times of distress or loneliness. Separation protest: The individual experiences distress when their access to the media figure is cut off, either temporarily or permanently. AI responses may
Gayle Stever’s identification of nine fan motivations and five engagement levels was not in 2017 but from earlier qualitative work, primarily presented in 2013. Stever conducted a content analysis of documents from 150 fans to understand why they were fans of specific celebrities. Her 2017 work, meanwhile, focused on parasocial attachment.
Nine fan motivations (2013)
Stever identified the following nine motivations for celebrity fandom:
Task Attraction: Being a fan because of appreciation for the celebrity's work, talents, and accomplishments, rather than their personal life. Romantic Attraction: Experiencing romantic feelings toward the celebrity. Identification A: Relating to and identifying with the celebrity's background or life story. Identification B: Emulating the celebrity's personality and appearance. Hero Worship: Seeing the celebrity as a hero or role model. Sexual Interest: Being attracted to the celebrity primarily for their sexual appeal. Mystique: Being intrigued by the mysterious and unknown parts of the celebrity's persona. Social: Engaging with the fan community and other fans. Ersatz Social: Using fandom to compensate for a lack of real-life social interactions. Five engagement levels (2013)
In the same study, Stever classified fans into five levels based on their intensity of engagement:
Level 1: Passive: The mildest level of fandom. These fans observe media content but do not engage in further interaction. Level 2: Active: Fans who follow the celebrity's career more closely and might seek out more information about them. Level 3: Intense: Engagement becomes more meaningful and may involve joining fan clubs or participating in organized fan activities. Level 4: Obsessive: Characterized by highly intense, sometimes problematic, and isolated engagement. This can include unhealthy levels of preoccupation and little to no interaction with other fans. Level 5: Interactive: Highly engaged fans who use fandom to interact with both the celebrity (if possible) and other fans, often for social and communal purposes. This level is defined by active, social participation, distinguishing it from the isolated behavior seen in Level 4. 
