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9. Revolutions of Industrialization

United States, Russia

industrialization: Britain → continental Western Europe → United States, Russia, Japan
broadly similar outcomes
new technologies, sources of energy → increases in production, urbanization
class structure changed
aristocrats, artisans, peasants declined as classes
middle classes, factory working class grew in numbers, social prominence
women
middle-class women withdrew from paid labor
working-class women sought to do so after marriage
working women received lower wages, had difficulty joining unions, accused of taking jobs from men
working-class frustration, anger → trade unions, socialist movements
different histories, cultures, societies → Industrial Revolution unfolded differently
reasons
pace, timing of industrialization
size, shape of major industries
role of state
political expression of social conflict
etc.
examples
France
slower
less disruptive
Germany
focused initially on heavy industry (iron, steel, coal) instead of textile industry
more highly concentrated in cartels (companies)
more militant, Marxist-oriented labor movement
by early 20th: industrialization turned United States into major global power; Russia became first outpost of global communism

United States: without socialism, industrialization

Beginnings

began in textile factories of New England (1820s)
grew explosively after Civil War (1861-1865)
became world’s leading industrial power by 1914
reasons
huge size
ready availability of natural resources
expanding domestic market
relative political stability
produced 36% of world’s manufactured goods
1/3 of capital investment came from British French, Germans; used to generate independent Industrial Revolution

Role of government

important role but less directly than in Germany, Japan
tax breaks
huge grants of public land to railroad companies
laws enabling easy formation of corporations
absence of overt regulation of industry
e.g. U.S. Steel Corporation by 1901 had annual budget 3x size of federal government’s

Mass production

pioneered techniques of mass production
interchangeable parts
assembly line
“scientific management”
middle-class “culture of consumption”
advertising agencies
Sears Roebuck’s and Montgomery Ward’s mail-order catalogs
urban department stores
self-made American industrialists became cultural heroes
models of what anyone could achieve with daring, hard work in this land of endless opportunity
Henry Ford
Andrew Carnegie
John D. Rockefeller

Social divisions

pre-industrial America: relative social equality
end of 19th: widening gap of social classes
cramped, unsanitary working conditions right next to elite mansions
opinions
some saw contrast as betrayal of American ideals
others saw as natural outcome of competition, “survival of the fittest”

Movements

labor protests, formation of unions, strikes, violence
1877: eastern railroads announced 10% wage cut for workers
disrupted rail service across eastern half of country
smashed equipment
rioted
state militia, federal troops called to put down movement
intense class consciousness, class conflict

Politics

no major political party to represent working class
socialism never really appealed to American workers
high point: Socialist Party of America had 6% of vote for presidential candidate in 1912
compare to Germany: had more seats in Parliament than any other party
even in Great Depression (1930s): no major socialist movement emerged

Reasons for little socialism

relative conservatism of major American union organizations (especially American Federation of Labor)
focus on skilled workers excluded more radical unskilled laborers
refusal to align with any political party limited influence in political arena
diverse industrial labor force
due to massive immigration from Europe (1840s)
in addition to sharp racial divide
contrast to homogenous populations of many European countries
religious, ethnic differences
undermined class solidarity of American workers
harder to sustain class-oriented political parties, socialist labor movement
economic growth generated higher standard of living for American workers
cheaper land
more opportunities for home ownerships
workers with property generally found socialism less attractive than those without
middle-class aspirations diluted impulses towards radicalism
came to be fundamentally “un-American”
valued individualism and feared “big government”

Challenges against capitalism

1890s: “populists” (small farmers in South, West, Midwest) protested against what they thought was dominated by corporate interests of eastern elites
banks
industrialists
monopolies
existing money system
both major political parties
Progessives pushed for specific reforms (more successful, especially in early 20th)
waegs-and-hours legislation
better sanitation standards
antitrust laws
greater governmental intervention in economy

Russia: revolution and industrialization

sole outpost of absolute monarchy
state exercised far greater control over individuals, society

Beginnings

beginning of 20th: tsar (answered to God alone) ruled unchecked
no national parliament
no legal political parties
no nationwide elections
society dominated by titled nobility of various ranks
upper: great landowners
military officers
leading government officials
until 1861: most were peasant serfs
bound to estates of masters
subject to sail
greatly exploited
at mercy of owners
vast cultural gap between two
nobles highly westernized; some spoke French better than Russian
serfs were in backwoods Orthodox Christianity that incorporated their spirits, spells, curses, magic

Source of change

different from United States: free farmers, workers, businessmen sought new opportunities in system that gave them varying degrees of expression
change often initiated by state
in order to catch up with more powerful and innovative states of Europe
“transformation from above”
early expression during
Peter the Great
⁠
⁠
continued with freeing of serfs in 1861
stimulated by military defeat by British, French at Crimean War (1854-1856)
to many, serfdom seemed incompatible with modern civilization, held back overall development

Industrial Revolution

led by state
focused on railroads, heavy industry
fueled by substantial amount of foreign investment
by 1900: Russia ranked fourth in world in steel production; had major industries in coal, textiles, oil
industrial enterprises concentrated in few major cities, took place in factories far larger than in most of Western Europe

Social outcomes

growing middle class of businessmen, professionals
objected strongly to deep conservatism of tsarist Russia
sought greater role in political life
United States: without socialism, industrialization
Beginnings
Role of government
Mass production
Social divisions
Movements
Politics
Reasons for little socialism
Challenges against capitalism
Russia: revolution and industrialization
Beginnings
Source of change
Industrial Revolution
Social outcomes
Marxist socialism
Russian Revolution of 1905
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