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7. Cultural Transformations

The Scientific Revolution

nurturing an understanding of the cosmos at least partially at odds with traditional Christian thinking

while some Europeans were actively attempting to spread the Christian faith to distant corners of the world

makers of Europe’s Scientific Revolution

vast intellectual and cultural transformation

took place between mid-16th and early 18th

no longer relied on external authority

Bible

Church

speculations of ancient philosophers

received wisdom of cultural tradition

knowledge acquired through rational inquiry based on evidence

those who created this revolution saw themselves as departing radically from older ways of thinking

Copernicus from Poland

Galileo from Italy

Descartes from France

Newton from England

Impact

early modern Europe

fundamentally altered ideas about place of humankind within cosmos

sharply challenged teachings and authority of Church

subsequently eroded religious belief and practice in West (particularly among well-educated)

science also used to legitimize gender and racial inequalities

gave new support to old ideas about natural inferiority of women and enslaved people

science fostered marvels of modern production and horrors of modern means of destruction

when married to technological innovation of Industrial Revolution

by 20th: so widespread that it lost its association with European culture

became chief marker of global modernity

became universal worldview

open to all who could accept its premises and techniques

like Buddhism, Christianity, Islam

Why Europe?

Favorable conditions

historical development as reinvigorated, fragmented civilization

by 12th/13th: legal system guaranteeing measure of independence

for a variety of institutions

Church

towns and cities

guilds

professional associations

universities

based on the idea of a “corporation”

collective group of people

treated as unit (single person) with certain rights to regulate and control its own members

Autonomy of emerging universities

1215: University of Paris recognized as “corporation of masters and scholars”

could admit and expel students

could establish courses of instruction

could grant a “license to teach” to its faculty

universities became “neutral zones of intellectual autonomy”

scholars could pursue studies

relative freedom from dictates of church or state authorities

study of natural order began to slowly separate from philosophy and theology, gain distinct identity

“core of readings and lectures that were basically scientific”

drew heavily on Aristotle’s writings

only recently available to Western Europeans

major figures often trained in and affiliated with these universities

Contrast to other areas

madrassas (Islamic colleges): Quranic studies and religious law held central place

philosophy, natural science viewed with considerable suspicion

Quran held all wisdom; scientific thinking challenged it

earlier openness increasingly replaced by disdain for scientific, philosophical inquiry

seemed to only lead to uncertainty and confusion

“May God protect us from useless knowledge”

China: did not permit independent institutions of higher learning where scholars could have relative freedom

emphasized humanistic, moral texts of classical Confucianism

Could draw on other cultures

especially Islamic world (major role in birth of European “natural philosophy” between 1000 and 1500)

medical texts

astronomical research

translations of Greek classics

16th-18th: center of massive new exchange of information

became aware of lands, peoples, plants, animals, societies, religions from around the world

shook older ways of thinking, opened way to new conceptions

uncertainties (skepticism about established views) provided fertile cultural ground for emergence of modern science

Reformation also contributed

challenge to authority

encouragement of mass literacy

affirmation of secular professions

Science as cultural revolution

before Scientific Revolutions: educated Europeans had ancient view of the world

earth was stationary and at center of universe

around earth revolved sun, moon, stars in ten spheres of transparent crystal

coincided with religious outlook of Catholic Church

attention of entire universe centered on earth and human inhabitants

God’s plan for salvation on earth

universe of divine purpose

angels guided hierarchically arranged heavenly bodies along way

God watched over whole from realm beyond spheres

Scientific Revolution fundamentally challenged this understanding

Nicolaus Copernicus

Polish mathematician and astronomer

1543: published book On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

first to argue for sun-centered universe

“at the middle of all things lies the sun”, earth and other planets revolved around it

earth no longer unique or at obvious center of God’s attention

Expansion of ideas

early 17th: Johannas Kepler (German mathematician): planets followed elliptical orbits, not perfect circles

1609: Galileo (Italian): developed improved telescope, undermined established understandings of cosmos

some began to discuss idea of unlimited universe

humankind just mere speck of dust in unimaginable vastness

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