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11. Empires in collision: Europe, Middle East, East Asia

Ottoman Empire and West in 19th

like China: Islamic world represented highly successful civilization that felt little need to learn from “infidels” or “barbarians” of West until it collided wiht them

unlike China: Islamic civilization was near neighbor to Europe for 1,000 years

Ottoman Empire had long governed substantial parts of southeastern Europe

posed clear military and religious threat in 16th and 17th

many similarities between Ottoman Empire and China

did not fall under direct colonial rule

much diminished with changing balance of power

launched efforts at “defensive modernization” aimed at strengthening their states and preserving their independence

some held to old identities and values; others embraced new loyalties associated with nationalism and modernity

“Sick man of Europe”

Origins

1750: Ottoman Empire was central political fixture of widespread islamic World

ruled over much of Arab world from Turkish heartland in Anatolia

protected pilgrims on way to Mecca

governed Egypt and coastal North Africa

incorporated millions of Christians in Balkans

sultan claimed role of caliph

successor to Prophet Muhammad

widely viewed as leader, defender, primary representative of Islamic World

by middle and end of 19th, Ottoman Empire no longer able to deal with Europe from position of equality or superiority

now known as “the sick man of Europe”

within Muslim world: Ottoman Empire unable to prevent region after region from falling under control of Christians

India

Indonesia

West Africa

Central Asia

Territorial losses

To other countries

lost considerable land to Russians, British, Austrians, French

1798: Napoleon invaded Egypt (was long a province of Ottomans)

virtually independent Egypt pursued own modernizing and empire-building program; on one occasion came close to toppling Ottoman Empire

Independence

some parts of empire achieved independence based on own surging nationalism and support from British and Russians

Greece

Serbia

Bulgaria

Romania

continued independence of core region of Ottoman Empire due to inability of Europe’s Great Powers to agree on how to divide it

Other issues

Political

central Ottoman state weakened

could not raise necessary revenue

provincial authorities and local warlords gained greater power

Janissaries lost military edge

once were effective and innovative elite infantry units

became highly conservative force within empire

Economic

earlier centrality of Ottoman and Arab lands in Afro-Eurasian commerce diminished

Europeans achieved direct oceanic access to treasures of Asia

competition from cheap European manufactured goods hit Ottoman artisans; led to urban riots protesting foreign imports

series of capitulations (agreements) between European countries and Ottoman Empire

granted Westerners various exemptions from Ottoman law and taxation

facilitated European penetration of Ottoman economy

became widely resented

eroded Ottoman sovereignty

growing indebtedness of Ottoman Empire

began to rely on foreign loans to finance efforts at economic development

by 1881: inability to pay interests led to foreign control of much of its revenue-generating system

Egypt: similar situation led to British occupation

Reform and its opponents

19th: Ottoman leaders mounted increasingly ambitious programs of “defensive modernization”

Differences from China

occurred earlier

more sustained

more vigorous than the timid/halfhearted Chinese self-strengthening

reasons

absence of internal upheaval (China: Taiping Uprising)

primary internal crisis: nationalist revolts in periphery (China: peasant rebellion at center)

Middle East did not experience explosive population growth

long-established Ottoman leadership was Turkic and Muslim (China: foreign Manchus)

Beginnings

began in late 18th when Sultan Selim (r. 1789-1807) sought to reorganize and update army

drew on European advisors and techniques

stirred hostilities of powerful factions that saw them in conflict with Islam and institutional intersts

ulama (religious scholars)

Janissaries (elite military corps)

1807: Selim overthrown and murdered

subsequent sultans crushed Janissaries; brought ulama more thoroughly under state control

Tanzimat (reorganization)

1839: more far-reaching reformist measures

sought to provide economic, social, legal underpinnings for strong and newly re-centralized state

factories producing cloth, paper, armaments

modern mining operations

reclamation and resettlement of agricultural land

telegraphs, steamships, railroads, modern postal service

Western-style law codes and courts

new elementary and secondary schools

Religious

changes in legal status of empire’s diverse communities

gave non-Muslims equal rights under the law

challenged fundamentally Islamic state

mixed tribunals with representatives from various religious groups were established to hear cases involving non-Muslims

more Christians appointed to high office

mounting tide of secular legislation and secular schools (drawing heavily on European models) competed with traditional Islamic institutions

Gender

did not directly address gender issues

stimulated modest educational openings for women, mostly in Istanbul

1842: training program for midwives

1858: girls’ secondary school

1870: teacher training college for women

reform-minded class that emerged generally favored greater opportunities for women

means of strengthening the state

number of upper- and middle-class women involved

1870s and 1880s: Sair Nigar Hanim (female poet) held weekly “salons”; reformist intellectuals of both sexes participated

Who were the people?

Ottoman subjects of dynastic state?

Turkic citizens of national state?

Muslim believers in religiously-defined state?

Young Ottomans (religion and science)

believed Ottoman Empire was inclusive state; all people were loyal to it

new class that supported reforms: Young Ottomans

lower-level officials, military officers, writers, poets, journalists

many had modern Western-style education

active during middle decades of 19th; sought major changes in Ottoman Political system

Young Ottoman beliefs

Islam modernism

more European-style parliamentary and constitutional regime that could curtail absolute power of sultan

could overcome backwardness and preserve state against European aggression

found expression in many parts of Muslim world

Muslim societies needed to embrace Western technical and scientific knowledge while rejecting its materialism

Islam could accommodate full modernity without sacrificing religious character

1876: short-lived victory

Sultan Abd al-Hamid II (r. 1876-1909) accepted constitution and elected parliament

pressured by war with Russia → reforms soon suspended

reverted to older style of absolute rule for next thirty years

sultan renewed claim that he was caliph (successor to Prophet and protector of Muslims)

Young Turks (secular nationalism)

military and civilian elites

opposed new absolute ruling

largely abandoned reference to Islam

advocated militantly secular public life

committed to thorough modernization like Europeans

increasingly thought about Ottoman Empire as Turkish national state

1908: military coup; could exercise real power

pushed for radical secularization of schools, courts, law codes

permitted elections and competing parties

established single Law of Family Rights for all, regardless of religion

encouraged Turkish as official language of empire

opened opportunities for women

opened modern schools for women, including Istanbul University

allowed women to wear Western clothing

restricted polygamy

permitted women to divorce in some situations

women established number of publications and organizations (some linked to British suffrage groups)

some abandoned their veils

antagonized non-Turkic people and helped stimulate Arab and other nationalists

for some: secular nationality was most important public loyalty; Islam relegated to private life

nationalism contributed to complete disintegration of Ottoman Empire after World War I

secularizing and westernizing principles informed policies of the new Turkic republic

Outcomes: Ottomans vs. China

Consequences of shifting balance

once centers of proud and vibrant civilizations

now “semi-colonies” within “informal empires” of Europe

retained sufficient independence to launch catch-up efforts of defensive modernization

unable to create industrial economies or strong states to fend off European intrusion and restore formal status

gave rise to new nationalist conceptions of society

initially small and limited

greatly significant in future

End of empires

China: collapse of imperial system (1912) → vast revolutionary upheaval → communist regime (1949) in largely same territorial space

Ottomans: collapse after World War I → creation of new but smaller nation-state of Turkey in Anatolian heartland of old empire; lost Arab and European provinces

Religion

China rejected traditional Confucianism far more thoroughly than the secularizing leaders of modern Turkey rejected Islam

Islam retained hold on its civilization in 20th more firmly than Confucianism did in China

Islamic world

traditional religion retained hold on private loyalties; later became basis for social renewal

Islamic civilization had many independent centers; never closely associated with single state

embedded in deeply religious tradition that was personally meaningful (compare to elitist and secular Confucianism)

China

retained traditional Confucian values (e.g. filial piety)

Confucianism made comeback in China in past several decade

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