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11. Empires in collision: Europe, Middle East, East Asia

Ottoman Empire and West in 19th

like China: Islamic world represented highly successful civilization that felt little need to learn from “infidels” or “barbarians” of West until it collided wiht them

unlike China: Islamic civilization was near neighbor to Europe for 1,000 years

Ottoman Empire had long governed substantial parts of southeastern Europe

posed clear military and religious threat in 16th and 17th

many similarities between Ottoman Empire and China

did not fall under direct colonial rule

much diminished with changing balance of power

launched efforts at “defensive modernization” aimed at strengthening their states and preserving their independence

some held to old identities and values; others embraced new loyalties associated with nationalism and modernity

“Sick man of Europe”

Origins

1750: Ottoman Empire was central political fixture of widespread islamic World

ruled over much of Arab world from Turkish heartland in Anatolia

protected pilgrims on way to Mecca

governed Egypt and coastal North Africa

incorporated millions of Christians in Balkans

sultan claimed role of caliph

successor to Prophet Muhammad

widely viewed as leader, defender, primary representative of Islamic World

by middle and end of 19th, Ottoman Empire no longer able to deal with Europe from position of equality or superiority

now known as “the sick man of Europe”

within Muslim world: Ottoman Empire unable to prevent region after region from falling under control of Christians

India

Indonesia

West Africa

Central Asia

Territorial losses

To other countries

lost considerable land to Russians, British, Austrians, French

1798: Napoleon invaded Egypt (was long a province of Ottomans)

virtually independent Egypt pursued own modernizing and empire-building program; on one occasion came close to toppling Ottoman Empire

Independence

some parts of empire achieved independence based on own surging nationalism and support from British and Russians

Greece

Serbia

Bulgaria

Romania

continued independence of core region of Ottoman Empire due to inability of Europe’s Great Powers to agree on how to divide it

Other issues

Political

central Ottoman state weakened

could not raise necessary revenue

provincial authorities and local warlords gained greater power

Janissaries lost military edge

once were effective and innovative elite infantry units

became highly conservative force within empire

Economic

earlier centrality of Ottoman and Arab lands in Afro-Eurasian commerce diminished

Europeans achieved direct oceanic access to treasures of Asia

competition from cheap European manufactured goods hit Ottoman artisans; led to urban riots protesting foreign imports

series of capitulations (agreements) between European countries and Ottoman Empire

granted Westerners various exemptions from Ottoman law and taxation

facilitated European penetration of Ottoman economy

became widely resented

eroded Ottoman sovereignty

growing indebtedness of Ottoman Empire

began to rely on foreign loans to finance efforts at economic development

by 1881: inability to pay interests led to foreign control of much of its revenue-generating system

Egypt: similar situation led to British occupation

Reform and its opponents

19th: Ottoman leaders mounted increasingly ambitious programs of “defensive modernization”

Differences from China

occurred earlier

more sustained

more vigorous than the timid/halfhearted Chinese self-strengthening

reasons

absence of internal upheaval (China: Taiping Uprising)

primary internal crisis: nationalist revolts in periphery (China: peasant rebellion at center)

Middle East did not experience explosive population growth

long-established Ottoman leadership was Turkic and Muslim (China: foreign Manchus)

Beginnings

began in late 18th when Sultan Selim (r. 1789-1807) sought to reorganize and update army

drew on European advisors and techniques

stirred hostilities of powerful factions that saw them in conflict with Islam and institutional intersts

ulama (religious scholars)

Janissaries (elite military corps)

1807: Selim overthrown and murdered

subsequent sultans crushed Janissaries; brought ulama more thoroughly under state control

Tanzimat (reorganization)

1839: more far-reaching reformist measures

sought to provide economic, social, legal underpinnings for strong and newly re-centralized state

factories producing cloth, paper, armaments

modern mining operations

reclamation and resettlement of agricultural land

telegraphs, steamships, railroads, modern postal service

Western-style law codes and courts

new elementary and secondary schools

Religious

changes in legal status of empire’s diverse communities

gave non-Muslims equal rights under the law

challenged fundamentally Islamic state

mixed tribunals with representatives from various religious groups were established to hear cases involving non-Muslims

more Christians appointed to high office

mounting tide of secular legislation and secular schools (drawing heavily on European models) competed with traditional Islamic institutions

Gender

did not directly address gender issues

stimulated modest educational openings for women, mostly in Istanbul

1842: training program for midwives

1858: girls’ secondary school

1870: teacher training college for women

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