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2. Varieties of Civilizations

Islamic world

Spain and Morocco in west to northern India

heartland in Middle East and Egypt

largely incorporated into Islamic world through Arab Empire

excepting India

century and a half after Muhammad’s death (632 CE)

wide-scale conversion of subjects took longer (

Chapter 1⁠

)

from around 1000, second major expansion occurred into India, Anatolia, later Balkans

Turkic-speaking recent converts

by 1200, spreading into Southeast, Central Asia and sub-Saharan Africa through Muslim merchants, missionaries

between 1200 and 1450, Arab Empire politically fragmented

Islamic culture/religion remained vibrant in Middle East

cultural encounters with Hindu and Christian civilizations occured in heartland (India, Spain)

Islamic heartland

Abbasid caliphate

Arab dynasty, ruled since 750

in 1200 it was a shadow of its former self

at start of rule: new capital Baghdad; flourishing, prosperous Islamic civilization

political grip slipped away quickly

mid-9th century onwards: many local governors, military commanders asserted autonomy of their regions

still gave formal allegiance to caliph in Baghdad

Turkish rule

turning point

ca. 1000

Turkic-speaking pastoralists from grassland plains of Central Asia

at first, slave soldiers within Abbasid caliphate

as caliphate declined, increasingly took political and military power

ex. in Seljuk Turkic Empire (11th and 12th century): began claiming title “sultan” (Muslim for ruler) instead of “kaghan” (Turkish)

as political power grew, more Turkic-speaking warriors converted to Islam (10th-14th centuries)

major expansion of Islam

Turks became major sustainer of Islam, carrier to new regions

Ottoman Empire

before Ottoman Empire

by 1200: heartland fractured into “sultan-ates”

many ruled by Persian or Turkish military dynasties

13th century: Mongols (pastoral) invaded, ended Abbasid caliphate in 1258, ruled much of Persia for a time

Turkic warrior group that migrated into Anatolia

brought greater long-term political unity to Islamic Middle East, North Africa

by mid-15th century: state encompassed much of Anatolian peninsula, southeastern Europe (Balkans)

acquired substantial Christian population

capital city of Constantinople

16th century: extended to much of Middle East, Egypt, coastal North Africa, lands around Black Sea, farther into Eastern Europe

lasted 14th-20th centuries

Importance

enormously significant in world of 15th century and beyond

features:

huge territory

long duration

incorporation of many diverse peoples

economic sophistication

cultural sophistication

in 15th century: only China (Ming dynasty) and Incas matched it in wealth, power, splendor

represented emergence of Turks as dominant people of Islamic world

rule now over many Arabs (who initiated Islam over 800 years before)

claimed legacy of Abbasid Empire

added “caliph” (successor to Prophet) to other titles (including sultan)

sought to bring renewed unity to Islamic world

serve as protector of the faith (”strong sword of Islam”)

along with Safavid dynasty in Persia, 16th century, Ottomans brought to Islamic Middle East greater measure of:

political coherence

military power

economic prosperity

cultural brilliance

Cultural encounters in India

Turkic-speaking warrior groups were also spreading Islam through conquest in India

initiated encounter with ancient Hindu civilization

began around 1000

gave rise to series of Islamic regimes that governed much of India in 19th century

early centuries: violent

invaders smashed Hindu and Buddhist temples

carried off vast quantities of Indian treasure

Turkic rule became more systematic with establishment of Sultanate of Delhi in 1206

Turks’ small numbers, internal conflicts allowed only modest penetration of Indian society

Northern India

substantial Muslim communities emerged

in regions less tightly integrated into dominant Hindu culture

egalitarian aspects attracted:

disillusioned Buddhists

low-caste Hindus

untouchables (considered below lowest caste)

people transitioning into settled agriculture

some converted to avoid tax on non-Muslims

Sufis (holy men) important in facilitating conversion

India always valued “god-filled men” who were detached from worldly affairs

Regions

never able to claim more than 20-25% of total population

mostly consentrated in Punjab and Sind regions in northwestern India, Bengal in east

core regions of Hindu culture not seriously challenged by Islam despite centuries of Muslim rule

Muslims usually lived separately from rest of ancient Indian civilization

largely governed but could not completely transform

religious/cultural boundaries were permeable

many prominent Hindus willingly served in Muslim-ruled India

Southern India

beyond Delhi sultanate and sucessors

several Hindu states flourished

Vijayanagar empire

1336-1646

at height: controlled nearly all of southern India

capital city

about 500,000 people

“best provided city in the world” (16th-century European visitor)

sustained, peaceful Hindu-Muslim encounters

Muslim merchants prominent presence in trading ports

Muslim district of capital “as vibrant as the Hindu precincts” (scholar)

Hindu faith dominant, but permanent Muslim presence

Muslim Spain

called al-Andalus by Muslims

sustained cross-cultural encounters

Muslims, Christians, Jews mixed more freely than in India

amount of toleration fluctuated with persecution of other faiths

conquered by Arab and Berber forces during first wave of Islamic expansion

religious reversal between 1200 and 1450

chief significance: role in making Islamic learning available to Christian Europe

European scholars wanted secular knowledge (Greek and Arab) that accumulated in Islam, flocked to Spain to get it

Golden age

vibrant civilization by 900s

most properous agricultural economy in Europe at the time

capital (Córdoba) one of largest, most splendid cities in world

Muslims, Christians, Jews all contributed

astronomy, medicine, arts, architecture, literature flourished

social relationships among upper-class members of different faiths were easy and frequent

by 1000, about 75% converted to Islam

remaining Christians: many learned Arabic, veiled women, stopped eating pork, appreciated Arabic music/poetry, sometimes married Muslims

during reign of Abd al-Rahman III (r. 912-61)

freedom of worship

opportunity for all to rise in bureaucracy

End of golden age

golden age limited and brief

assimilated/Arabized Christians were unbelievers and second-class in Muslim eyes

toleration began to erode

Córdoba-based regime fragmented into rivaling states

warfare with remaining Christian kingdoms in northern Spain picked up in 10th and 11th centuries

puritanical and rigid forms of Islam entered Spain from North Persecution against Christians

official policy of tolerance turned to persecution against Christians

under rule of al-Mansur (r. 981-1002)

plundering of churches

seizure of wealth

al-Mansur still employed Christians mercenaries

social life changed, separating Muslims and Christians

devout Muslims avoided contact with Christians

Christian homes had to be built lower than Muslims’

priests forbidden to carry cross or Bible (offend Muslim sensibilities)

Arabized Christians could only live in particular places

Persecution against Muslims

Christian reconquest of Spain after 1200, ended in 1492 when Ferdinand and Isabella (Catholic monarchs) took Granada (last Muslim stronghold on Iberian peninsula)

initially promised to maintain freedom of Muslims to worship

early 16th century: series of edicts outlawing Islam

forced Muslims to choose conversion or exile

many required to emigrate to North Africa or Ottoman Empire along with 200,000 Jews who also refused to convert

early 17th century: Muslims converted to Christianity also banished

cultural interchange still persisted for a time