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7. Cultural Transformations

Globalization of Christianity

early modern era: Christianity mostly limited to Europe
1500: Iberian Peninsula and British Isles in west to Russia in east
small and besieged communities of various kinds in Egypt, Ethiopia, southern India, Central Asia
internally: seriously divided
Roman Catholics (Western and Central Europe)
Eastern Orthodox (Eastern Europe and Russia)
externally: defensive against expansive Islam
Muslims ousted Christian Crusaders from Holy Lands by 300
Ottomans seized Constantinople in 1453 (prestigious capital of Eastern Orthodoxy)
Ottoman sieges of Vienna (1529, 1683) marked Muslim advance into heart of Central Europe
seemed future laid with Islam rather than Christianity
except in Spain, Sicily (recently reclaimed for Christendom after centuries of Muslim rule)

Protestant Reformation

early 16th
shattered unity of Roman Catholic Christianity
previous 1000 years was cultural and organizational foundation of emerging Western European civilization

Martin Luther

German priest
publicly invited debate about various abuses in Roman Catholic Church
Ninety-Five Theses
allegedly nailed to door of church in Wittenberg
start of Reformation (1517)
nothing particularly new; many long been critical of church life and practice
luxurious life of popes
corruption and immorality of some clergy
selling of indulgences (to remove penalties for sin)
others
theological basis
troubled, brooding, anxious about relationship with God
came to new understanding of salvation: faith alone
good works of sinner nor sacraments of church head bearing of destiny of soul
source of beliefs: Bible (not Church)
interpreted according to individual’s conscience
challenged authority of Church
called into question special position of clerical hierarchy and especially pope
Cathnolic/Protestant differences in 16th century
Category
Catholic
Protestant
1
religious authority
pope, church hierarchy
Bible as interpreted by individuals
2
role of pope
ultimate authority in faith and doctrine
authority denied
3
ordination of clergy
apostolic succession: direct line between original opostles and all subsequently ordained clergy
apostolic succession denied; ordination by individual congregations or denominations
4
salvation
importance of church sacraments as channels of God’s grace
importance of faith alone; God’s grace freely and directly granted to believers
5
status of Mary
highly prominent, ranking just below Jesus; provides constant intercession (pleading prayer) to believers
less prominent; Mary’s intercession on behalf of the faithful denied
6
prayer
to God, but often through or with Mary and saints
to God alone; no role for Mary and saints
7
Holy Communion
transubstanation: bread and wine become the actual body and blood of Christ
transubstantiation denied; bread and wine have a spiritual or symbolic significance
8
role of saints
prominent spiritual exemplars and intermediaries betweeen God and humankind
generally disdained as a source of idolatry; saints refer to all Christians
There are no rows in this table
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Division

as result of Luther’s ideas
contrary to his original intentions
Catholic Christendom came to express variety of political, economic, social tensions
some kings, princes: found justification for own independence
long disputed political authority of pope
opportunity to gain lands and taxes previously held by church
middle-class urban dwellers: new religious legitimacy for growing role in society
Protestant idea that all vocations were of equal merit
Roman Catholic Church was associated in their eyes with rural, feudal aristocratic privilege
common people: express opposition to entire social order
offended by corruption, luxurious living of some bishops, abbots, popes
particularly in series of German peasant revolts in 1520s

Women

women not offered substantially greater role by Reformation teachings and practices
veneration of Mary and female saints ended
male Christ figure as sole object of worship
closing of convents
alternative to marriage
due to Protestant opposition to celibacy and monastic life
Protestants (other than Quakers) no more willing than Catholics to offer women official role in churches
stimulated education and literacy
reading Bible for self
little opportunity to use education outside of family
emphasis on women as wives/mothers subject to male supervision

Spread

helped by printing press brought to Europe
pamphlets, translation of New Testament to German soon widely available
divided into competing Protestant churches as it spread
France, Switzerland, England, etc.
Lutheran, Calvinist, Anglican, Quaker, Anabaptist
Calvinism: John Calvin emphasized doctrine of predestination (salvation for those chosen by God)
often subsequently subdivided
produced bewildering array of Protestant denominations
each distinctive
none gave allegiance to Rome or pope

Religious difference

in addition to class divisions, fractured political system of Europe
both within and between states
France: between Catholics and Huguenots (Protestant minority)
Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648): Catholic-Protestant conflict
began in Holy Roman Empire, eventually engulfed most of Europe
horrendously destructive
15-30% of German population perished from violence, famine, disease
Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended conflict
some reshuffling of boundaries
agreement that each state was sovereign (authorized to control religious affairs within own territory)
religious unity now permanently splintered

Catholic/Counter-Reformation

caused by Protestant breakaway and reformist tendencies within Catholic Church
Council of Trent (1545-1563)
Catholics clarified and reaffirmed doctrines, sacraments, practices
authority of pope
priestly celibacy
veneration of saints and relics
importance of church tradition and good works
things rejected by Protestants
corrected abuses and corruption that stimulated Protestant movement
new emphasis on education of priests, supervision by bishops
censorship of books, fines, exile, penitence, sometimes burning of heretics
more attention to individual spirituality, personal piety
new religious orders (e.g. Society of Jesus/Jesuits) provided dedicated brotherhood of priests committed to renewal and extension of Catholic Church

Impact

profoundly religious but encouraged skeptical attitude towards authority and tradition
Protestant Reformation
Martin Luther
Cathnolic/Protestant differences in 16th century
Division
Women
Spread
Religious difference
Catholic/Counter-Reformation
Impact
Outward-bound
Empire support
Reasons for success
Overwhelming European presence
Absence of literate world religion
Conversion and adaptation in Spanish America
Difference of Europeans
Resistance
Overt resistance
Blending
Blending in Mexico
Asian comparison: China and Jesuits
Strategy
Outcomes
Reasons
Opposition by papacy
Missionary reputation
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