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12. War and Revolution (Milestones of Century)

First World War (1914-1918): European crisis with global impact

since 1500, Europe had increasingly prominent position
military capacity
colonial empires
Scientific Revolution
Industrial Revolution
Europeans had a lot of pride, self-confidence, sense of superiority
“proud tower” shattered less than half century later, starting with First World War

Beginnings

Political situation

Europe’s modern transformation and global ascension was accompanied by growing historic rivalries between nation-states
sharpened as Italy and Germany joined their territories into two new powers (~1870)
Germany: rapidly industrializing; disruptive to established powers (e.g. Britain, France, Russia)
after Napoleon’s defeat (1815), fragile and fluctuating balance of power generally maintained peace among Europe’s major countries
early 20th: two rival alliances
Triple Alliance
Germany
Italy
Austro-Hungarian Empire
Triple Entente
Russia
France
Britain
alliances turned a relatively minor incident in the Balkans (southeastern Europe) into something that consumed almost all of Europe

Kickoff

June 28, 1914: Serbian nationalist assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to Austro-Hungarian throne
surging nationalism of Serbian Slavs was threatening to their multinational empire; needed to be crushed
Austria-Hungary backed by Germany
Serbia backed by Russia; Russia allied with French and British

Factors

was not planned or predicted but occurred due to system of rigid alliances

⁠
Rise of nationalism
⁠
⁠

rulers of major European countries saw world as arena of conflict and competition among rival nation-states
millions of ordinary Europeans convinced that their national identities were profoundly and personally meaningful
schools
mass media
military service
public pressure of competing nationalisms allowed statesmen little room for compromise, ensured initial widespread support to go to war
men rushed to recruiting offices, fearing that the war might end before they could enlist
celebratory parades to send soldiers off
conservative government: occasion for national unity in face of growing class- and gender-based conflicts in European societies

Industrialized militarism

most/all major European states
military men had high social prestige; most heads of state wore uniforms in public
substantial standing armies; relied on conscription (except Britain)
elaborate “war plans” that spelled out movement of men and materials that should occur immediately upon outbreak of war
created hair-trigger mentality; each country had incentive to strike first so its strategy could be implemented
rapid industrialization of warfare
generated new weapons
submarines
tanks
airplanes
poison gas
machine guns
barbed wire
contributed to staggering casualties
~10 million deaths (mostly male)
~20 million wounded, crippled, disfigured
countless women left without husbands or children

Imperial reach around world

funneled colonial troops and laborers by hundreds of thousands into war effort
Africa
India
China
Southeast Asia
Australia
New Zealand
Canada
British and French seized German colonies in Africa, South Pacific
Japan (allied with Britain) took various German possessions in China, Pacific; demanded territorial and economic concessions from China
Ottoman Empire became site of intense military actions; witnessed Arab revolt against Ottoman Turkish control
United States (initially wanted to avoid involvement) joined in 1917 when Germain submarines threatened American shipping

Impacts

Europe

Short-term

shattered expectations
most thought it would end in a year; lasted four
ended in German defeat in November 1918
became “total war”: required mobilization of each country’s entire population
authority of governments expanded greatly
Germany assumed further control over economy in “war socialism”
vast propoganda campaigns depicted cruel, inhuman enemy who killed innocent children and violated women
labor unions agreed to suspend strikes and accept sacrifices for the common good
women temporarily abandoned struggle for vote

Long-term

unprecedented casualties (especially elite and well-educated)
physical destruction (especially in France)
led to widespread disillusionment among intellectuals
seemed to mock Enlightenment values
progress
tolerance
rationality
some began to doubt that West was superior or that its science and technology were unquestionably good
“It must be all lies and of no account when the culture of a thousand years could not prevent this stream of blood being poured out” (All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Remarque, German veteran)

Social changes

women urged to leave factory work and return to home so as to not compete with veterans for “men’s jobs”
casualties promoted social mobility
suffrage movements revived; women received right to vote in many countries, partly because of their sacrifices during the war
Britain
United States
Germany
Soviet Union
Hungary
Poland
flappers: young-middle class women that flouted convention
appeared at nightclubs
smoked
danced
drank hard liquor
cut their hair short
wore revealing clothing
expressed more open sexuality
new consumerism, particularly in United States
reasons
technological innovations
mass production
pent-up demand after wartime
encouraged people to get the newly available products
cars
washing machines
vacuum cleaners
electric irons
gas ovens
radio, movies transferred popular culture
jazz: America → Europe
Hollywood → international

Political changes

collapse of German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian empires → new Central Europe
new independent nations
Poland
Czechoslovakia
Yugoslavia
etc.
based on “national self-determination”
concept championed by U.S. president Woodrow Wilson
still contained dissatisfied ethnic minorities who claimed the same principle
Treaty of Versailles
formally concluded war in 1919
Germany lost
lost colonial empire and 15% of its European territory
required to pay heavy reparations to winners
had military forces severely restricted
required to accept sole responsibility for outbreak of war
created immense resentment in Germany
“It cannot be that two million Germans should have fallen in vain.... No, we do not pardon, we demand—vengeance” (Adolf Hitler)

Outside Europe

Ottoman Empire

authorities suspected that some of their Armenian subjects were collaborating with the Russian enemy
massacred or deported an estimated 1 million Armenians
“genocide” as a word not invented yet
some historians applied it to this
established a precedent built on by the Nazis
brought final end to its decline
created modern map of Middle East with new states
Turkey
Syria
Iraq
Transjordan
Palestine
Arabs emerged from Turkish rule
many governed for a time by British or French as “mandates” of the League of Nations
conflicting British promises to Arabs and Jews regarding Palestine set stage for struggle over over it

European colonies

millions of Asian and African men watched Europeans butcher each other without mercy
gained new military skills and political awareness
returned home
less respect for their rulers
expectations for better treatment as a reward for their service
India: British wanted Indian support for war → publicly promised to help India become self-governed → independence struggle
East Asia
Japan emerged strengthened from the war, with European support for its claim to take over German territory and privileges in China
enraged Chinese nationalists
pushed them towards a more revolutionary posture
seemed to signify continuation of arrogant imperialist attitude among Europeans towards the Chinese people

United States

became center stage as global power
manpower contributed to defeat of Germany
financial resources turned United States from debtor nation in Europe’s creditor
American president Woodrow Wilson
arrived in Paris for peace conference in 1919; greeted with almost religious enthusiasm
Fourteen Points: new kind of international life, based on moral principles instead of secret deals and imperialist machinations
League of Nations: new international peacekeeping organization
committed to “collective security”
intended to avoid repetition of the horrors that just ended
idealistic vision largely failed
Germany treated more harshly than he wished
national self-determination in multiethnic European states and elsewhere was difficult
inspired hope in colonies that could not immediately be fulfilled
U.S. Senate refused to join League of Nations
feared that Americans would be forced to bow to “the will of other nations”
weakened League as vehicle for Wilson’s new international order

Origins

Background

significant outcome of World War I: beginning of world communism
modern communism found political, philosophical roots in 19th-century European socialism, inspired by Karl Marx
most European socialists believed that they could achieve their goals peacefully and democratically
Russia: this was not the case, because democracy barely existed
many Russian socialists advocated uncompromising revolution as the only possible route to a socialist future
this occurred during World War I in 1917
⁠
background
⁠
⁠
Beginnings
Political situation
Kickoff
Factors
Rise of nationalism
Industrialized militarism
Imperial reach around world
Impacts
Europe
Short-term
Long-term
Social changes
Political changes
Outside Europe
Ottoman Empire
European colonies
United States
Origins
Background
Catalyst: World War I
Social changes
Rise of Bolsheviks
Civil war
Socialist political system
Joseph Stalin
Communist Party
Impacts
Rural areas
Cities
Conflict
Terror/Great Purges
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