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since 1500, Europe had increasingly prominent positionmilitary capacitycolonial empiresScientific RevolutionIndustrial RevolutionEuropeans had a lot of pride, self-confidence, sense of superiority“proud tower” shattered less than half century later, starting with First World War
Europe’s modern transformation and global ascension was accompanied by growing historic rivalries between nation-statessharpened as Italy and Germany joined their territories into two new powers (~1870)Germany: rapidly industrializing; disruptive to established powers (e.g. Britain, France, Russia)after Napoleon’s defeat (1815), fragile and fluctuating balance of power generally maintained peace among Europe’s major countriesearly 20th: two rival alliancesTriple AllianceGermanyItalyAustro-Hungarian EmpireTriple EntenteRussiaFranceBritainalliances turned a relatively minor incident in the Balkans (southeastern Europe) into something that consumed almost all of Europe
June 28, 1914: Serbian nationalist assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to Austro-Hungarian thronesurging nationalism of Serbian Slavs was threatening to their multinational empire; needed to be crushedAustria-Hungary backed by GermanySerbia backed by Russia; Russia allied with French and British
was not planned or predicted but occurred due to system of rigid alliances
rulers of major European countries saw world as arena of conflict and competition among rival nation-statesmillions of ordinary Europeans convinced that their national identities were profoundly and personally meaningfulschoolsmass mediamilitary servicepublic pressure of competing nationalisms allowed statesmen little room for compromise, ensured initial widespread support to go to warmen rushed to recruiting offices, fearing that the war might end before they could enlistcelebratory parades to send soldiers offconservative government: occasion for national unity in face of growing class- and gender-based conflicts in European societies
most/all major European statesmilitary men had high social prestige; most heads of state wore uniforms in publicsubstantial standing armies; relied on conscription (except Britain)elaborate “war plans” that spelled out movement of men and materials that should occur immediately upon outbreak of warcreated hair-trigger mentality; each country had incentive to strike first so its strategy could be implementedrapid industrialization of warfaregenerated new weaponssubmarinestanksairplanespoison gasmachine gunsbarbed wirecontributed to staggering casualties~10 million deaths (mostly male)~20 million wounded, crippled, disfiguredcountless women left without husbands or children
funneled colonial troops and laborers by hundreds of thousands into war effortAfricaIndiaChinaSoutheast AsiaAustraliaNew ZealandCanadaBritish and French seized German colonies in Africa, South PacificJapan (allied with Britain) took various German possessions in China, Pacific; demanded territorial and economic concessions from ChinaOttoman Empire became site of intense military actions; witnessed Arab revolt against Ottoman Turkish controlUnited States (initially wanted to avoid involvement) joined in 1917 when Germain submarines threatened American shipping
shattered expectationsmost thought it would end in a year; lasted fourended in German defeat in November 1918became “total war”: required mobilization of each country’s entire populationauthority of governments expanded greatlyGermany assumed further control over economy in “war socialism”vast propoganda campaigns depicted cruel, inhuman enemy who killed innocent children and violated womenlabor unions agreed to suspend strikes and accept sacrifices for the common goodwomen temporarily abandoned struggle for vote
unprecedented casualties (especially elite and well-educated)physical destruction (especially in France)led to widespread disillusionment among intellectualsseemed to mock Enlightenment valuesprogresstolerancerationalitysome began to doubt that West was superior or that its science and technology were unquestionably good“It must be all lies and of no account when the culture of a thousand years could not prevent this stream of blood being poured out” (All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Remarque, German veteran)
women urged to leave factory work and return to home so as to not compete with veterans for “men’s jobs”casualties promoted social mobilitysuffrage movements revived; women received right to vote in many countries, partly because of their sacrifices during the warBritainUnited StatesGermanySoviet UnionHungaryPolandflappers: young-middle class women that flouted conventionappeared at nightclubssmokeddanceddrank hard liquorcut their hair shortwore revealing clothingexpressed more open sexualitynew consumerism, particularly in United Statesreasonstechnological innovationsmass productionpent-up demand after wartimeencouraged people to get the newly available productscarswashing machinesvacuum cleanerselectric ironsgas ovensradio, movies transferred popular culturejazz: America → EuropeHollywood → international
collapse of German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian empires → new Central Europenew independent nationsPolandCzechoslovakiaYugoslaviaetc.based on “national self-determination”concept championed by U.S. president Woodrow Wilsonstill contained dissatisfied ethnic minorities who claimed the same principleTreaty of Versaillesformally concluded war in 1919Germany lostlost colonial empire and 15% of its European territoryrequired to pay heavy reparations to winnershad military forces severely restrictedrequired to accept sole responsibility for outbreak of warcreated immense resentment in Germany“It cannot be that two million Germans should have fallen in vain.... No, we do not pardon, we demand—vengeance” (Adolf Hitler)
authorities suspected that some of their Armenian subjects were collaborating with the Russian enemymassacred or deported an estimated 1 million Armenians“genocide” as a word not invented yetsome historians applied it to thisestablished a precedent built on by the Nazisbrought final end to its declinecreated modern map of Middle East with new statesTurkeySyriaIraqTransjordanPalestineArabs emerged from Turkish rulemany governed for a time by British or French as “mandates” of the League of Nationsconflicting British promises to Arabs and Jews regarding Palestine set stage for struggle over over it
millions of Asian and African men watched Europeans butcher each other without mercygained new military skills and political awarenessreturned homeless respect for their rulersexpectations for better treatment as a reward for their serviceIndia: British wanted Indian support for war → publicly promised to help India become self-governed → independence struggleEast AsiaJapan emerged strengthened from the war, with European support for its claim to take over German territory and privileges in Chinaenraged Chinese nationalistspushed them towards a more revolutionary postureseemed to signify continuation of arrogant imperialist attitude among Europeans towards the Chinese people
became center stage as global powermanpower contributed to defeat of Germanyfinancial resources turned United States from debtor nation in Europe’s creditorAmerican president Woodrow Wilsonarrived in Paris for peace conference in 1919; greeted with almost religious enthusiasmFourteen Points: new kind of international life, based on moral principles instead of secret deals and imperialist machinationsLeague of Nations: new international peacekeeping organizationcommitted to “collective security”intended to avoid repetition of the horrors that just endedidealistic vision largely failedGermany treated more harshly than he wishednational self-determination in multiethnic European states and elsewhere was difficultinspired hope in colonies that could not immediately be fulfilledU.S. Senate refused to join League of Nationsfeared that Americans would be forced to bow to “the will of other nations”weakened League as vehicle for Wilson’s new international order
significant outcome of World War I: beginning of world communismmodern communism found political, philosophical roots in 19th-century European socialism, inspired by Karl Marxmost European socialists believed that they could achieve their goals peacefully and democraticallyRussia: this was not the case, because democracy barely existedmany Russian socialists advocated uncompromising revolution as the only possible route to a socialist futurethis occurred during World War I in 1917
went badly for Russiansaccumulated tensions of Russian society explodedworkers (men, women, wives of soldiers) took to the streets to express their outrage at incompetence and privileges of elitesactivists organized demonstrations, published newspapers, plotted revolutionby early 1917: Tsar Nicholas II lost almost all supportforced to abdicate throneended Romanov dynasty (ruled for over 3 centuries)Provisional Government: led by major political figures from various parties
ordinary soldiers deserted in substantial numberssought end to a terrible wardespised their upper-class officersin major industrial centers (St. Petersburg, Moscow), new trade unions arosedefended workers’ interestssome seized control of their factoriessoviets emergedgrassroots organizations of workers and soldiersspoke for ordinary peoplepeasantsseized landlords’ estatesburned manor housesredistributed landnon-Russian nationalists in Ukraine, Poland, Muslim Central Asia, Baltic region demanded greater autonomy or independence
small socialist party that seized power by end of 1917ruled by Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, more commonly known as Leninmessage resonated with increasingly rebellious public moodend to warland for peasantsworkers’ control of factoriesself-determination for non-Russians
officially called their party “communist”fought for three yearstsarist officialslandlordsdisaffected socialistsregional nationalist forcesforeign troopsUnited StatesBritainFranceJapanby 1921, Bolsheviks were victorious; renamed their country the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR or Soviet Union)
1878-1953emerged as principle Soviet leader by late 1920sbuilding socialism meant first the modernization and industrialization of backwards Russiasought distinctly socialist modernityemphasis on social equalitypromoted selflessness and collectivism
dominated societytop-ranking party members enjoyed privileges but were expected to be exemplars of socialism in the makingdisciplinedselflessutterly loyal to their country’s Marxist ideologypenetrated society in ways that Western scholars called “totalitarian”other parties were forbiddenstate controlled almost entire economypolitical authorities ensured that arts, education, media conformed to approved ways of thinkingmass organizations for women, workers, students, professional groups operated under party control (unlike independence of West)
end of private ownership of landend of collectivization of agriculture1928-1933peasants forced into large-scale collective farmssupposedly more productivesupposedly better able to utilize modern agricultural machinery thn small family farmsStalin singled out richer peasants (kulaks) for exclusion on new collective farmssome killedsome deported to remote areasurban activists who enforced collectivization viewed as intrusive outsiderslittle support or experience in countrysidefamine with 5 million deaths from starvation or malnutrition
needed rapid industrializationSoviet approach differed greatly from capitalist Weststate ownership of propertycentralized planning in successive five-year planspriority to heavy industrymassive mobilization of human and material resourcesintrusive Communist Party control of entire processworked for a timewhile capitalist world was floundering amid massive unemployment of Great Depressionlargely eliminated unemploymentcreated foundations of industrial society that proved itself in victory over Nazi Germany in World War IIUSSR achieved massive improvements in literary rates and educational opportunities → far greater social mobility for millions of peoplelike West, industrialization fostered:rapid urbanizationexploitation of countryside to provide resources for industry in citiesgrowth of privileged bureaucratic and technological elite
search for enemies that disfigured Soviet lifeelastic concept of “enemy”surviving remnants from pre-revolutionary eliteshigh-ranking members and longtime supporters of Communist Party
First World War (1914-1918): European crisis with global impact
Beginnings
Political situation
Kickoff
Factors
Industrialized militarism
Imperial reach around world
Impacts
Europe
Short-term
Long-term
Social changes
Political changes
Outside Europe
Ottoman Empire
European colonies
United States
Origins
Background
Catalyst: World War I
Social changes
Rise of Bolsheviks
Civil war
Socialist political system
Joseph Stalin
Communist Party
Impacts
Rural areas
Cities
Conflict
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