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European empires in Western Hemisphere grew out of accident: Columbus discovering AmericasEuropeans in Asia: no accidentPortuguese mariner Vasco da GamaEuropeans sailing to India for first timedeliberate, systematic, century-long Portuguese effort to explore a sea route to the eastcreep slowly down West African coastaround tip of South Africaup East African coastacross Indian Ocean to Indiaencountered ancient and rich network of commerce from East Africa to Chinaaware of wealth of that network but largely ignorant of its workings
immediate motivationexamplescinnamonnutmegmaceclovespepperused for condiments, preservatives, medicines, aphrodisiacsother productsChinese silkIndian cottonsrhubarb for medicinal purposesemeraldsrubiessapphires
general recovery of European civilization after Black Death in 15thEurope population growing againnational monarchies (Spain, Portugal, England, France) learning to:tax subjects more effectivelybuild substantial military forces with gunpowder weaponsgrowth of citiessome became centers of international commercegave both to economies based on:market exchangeprivate ownershipaccumulation of capital for further investment
through Middle East from Indian Ocean trade networkfrom viewpoint of Europe: several major problemssource of supply for much-desired goods comes from Muslims (most immediately in Egypt)Venice largely monopolized European trade in Eastern goodsannually sent convoys of ships to Alexandria in EgyptVenice resented Muslim monopoly on Indian Ocean tradeother Europeans disliked relying on Venice and Muslimsreligious and political motivations for Portuguese to attempt sea route to Indiabypassing Venice/Muslim intermediaries/monopolyjoin with mysterious Christian monarch (Prester John) who ruled somewhere in Asia or Africa to continue Crusades/combat common Islamic enemy
few European products were attractive in Eastern markets (economically less-developed)Europeans required to pay cash (gold or silver)contributed to intense desire for precious metalsattracted early modern European explorers, traders, conquerersPortuguese voyages along West African coast seeking direct access to African goldfieldssilver deposits in Mexico and Bolivia were temporary solution
Vasco de Gama and successors sailed into Indian Ocean commercial network: nothing like anything they’ve seenvast in geographic extent and in diversityEast Arabs, Persians, Indians, Chinese, othersmost Muslim, but also Hindu Buddhists, Christians, Jews, ChineseEuropean trade goods were crude and unattractiveIndian Ocean merchant ships were not heavily armed, lacked onboard cannons of Portugueseno major power to dominatesmaller-scale merchants traded openly, but piracy was sometimes a problem
ships could outgun and outmaneuver competing naval forcesonboard cannons could devastate coastal fortificationsestablished fortified bases at key locations within Indian Ocean worldMombasa in East AfricaHormuz at entrance to Persian GultGoa on west coast of IndiaMalacca in Southeast AsiaMacao on south coast of Chinaobtained forcibly against small and weak statese.g. Mombasa: commander of Portuguese fleet responded to local resistance by burning and sacking, seizing large quantities of cotton and silk textiles, carpetsexception: Macao: bribery and negotiations with Chinese authorities
aimed to control commerce, not large territories or populationsdid so by force of arms instead of economic competitionPortuguese king called self “Lord of the Conquest, Navigation, and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India”authorities tried to require all merchant vessels to purchase a cartaz (pass) and pay duties of 6-10% on cargoespartially blocked Red Sea route to Mediterraneanfor about a century: monopolized the highly profitable route around Africa to Europenever succeeded in controlling more than about half the spice trade to Europemid-16th - 18th: older routes by both land and sea through Ottoman into Mediterranean were revived and prospered
failed to dominate Indian Ocean commerce, gradually assimilated to ancient patternsheavily involved in “carrying trade”transporting Asian goods to Asian portsselling shipping services since they largely could not sell goodsPortuguese were outnumbered by Asian tradersmany married Asian womenhundreds of Portuguese escaped control of their governmentsettled in Asian or African portslearned local languagessometimes converted to Islambecome one more group in the diverse trading culture
Europeans and Asian commerce
Desire for tropical spices
Population recovery
Eastern goods to Mediterranean
Paying for Eastern goods
Portuguese empire of commerce
Conditions
Takeover
Trading post empire
Ancient patterns
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