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8. Atlantic Revolutions, Global Echos

Comparisons

North American Revolution (1775-1787)

decisive political change

conservative movement; tried to preserve existing liberties, not create new ones

Before

Self-governance

had considerable degree of local autonomy

British government was occupied with its internal conflicts and other European wars

Britain’s West Indian colonies seemed more significant/profitable than North America

led by local elected assemblies of wealthier property owners

regarded as birthright, part of English heritage

until mid-18th, nobody thought to break from England because being in the British Empire was advantageous

protection in war

access to British markets

confirmation of identity as “English”

Societal

“most radical in the contemporary Western world”

class distinctions existed with small class of wealthy men

social life was more open than in Europe

land was readily available (after Native Americans)

few people in colonies

no titled nobility

no single established church

no legal distinctions like France separating clergy, aristocracy, commoners

all free men had same status under law

excluded: Black slaves

in some ways also excluded white women

Impact

less poverty

more economic opportunity

fewer social differences

easier relationships among classes

Cause

British government suddenly tightened control over colonies to generate more revenue

Britain’s struggle with France weakened national debt

Britain began to act like imperial power

new taxes and tariffs on colonies without their consent

colonies not represented in British Parliament

colonists were infuriated/challenged

economic interests

established local autonomy

identity as Englishmen

used ideas of Enlightenment and went to war (with aid of French)

popular sovereignty

natural rights

consent of governed

Effects

Societal

independence from Britain not accompanied by social transformation

accelerated established democracy

political authority largely in existing elites who led revolution

property requirements for voting lowered; small farmers/artisans could be elected to state legislators

women/people of color did not benefit

land was not seized from owners, other than pro-British loyalists who fled

slavery gradually abolished in northern states but not southern

United States became world’s most democratic country

not really the direct product of the revolution

gradual reform of earlier practices

principles of equality in Declaration of Independence

Political

initiated political dismantling of New World empires

“right to revolution” from Declaration inspired revolutionaries and nationalists worldwide

Constitution was one of first sustained eforts of putting political ideas from Enlightenment into practice

Bill of Rights

checks and balances

separation of church and state

federalism

French Revolution (1789-1815)

Causes

closely connected to American Revolution

French soldiers who helped American colonists returned home with republican enthusiasm

Thomas Jefferson: France “has been awakened by our revolution”

French government was nearing bankruptcy after helping America

sought to modernize tax system and make it more equitable

Louis XVI called Estates General into session

three “estates” (legal orders) of France: clergy, nobility, commoners

representatives of Third Estate (commoners) became National Assembly

claimed sole authority to make laws

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: “men are born and remain free and equal in rights” - inspired 1791 French Constitution

Differences to America

driven by sharp conflicts within society, not relationship with distant imperial power

titled nobility resented and resisted efforts to subject them to new taxes

educated middle-class were growing in numbers/wealth, offended by remaining privelges of aristocracy

urban men/women had declining wages and were impacted by rising prices and unemployment

peasants (not serfs anymore) were subject to dues from landlords, taxes from state, obligations to Church, requirement to work without pay on public roads

profound social upheaval; more violent, far-reaching, radical

fear that revolution might be overturned

overturned initial ideas like constitutional monarchy, harmony among classes

due to internal resistance, foreign opposition

insurrections by urban crowds

attacked lords’ homes

burned documents recording dues and payments

National Assembly ended feudalism

slavery briefly abolished

church lands sold to raise revenue

priests put under government authority

Terror of 1793-1794

started with execution of King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette

under leadership of Maximilien Robespierre and his Committee of Public Safety

tens of thousands of “enemies” of revolution were executed

later, Robespierre arrested and guillotined

accused of making France a tyranny/dictatorship

Change

efforts to create completely new society

new calendar: Year 1 in 1792

wanted to start from scratch, look to future

became republic

briefly univeral male suffrage

administrative: 83 territorial departments

world’s largest army (80,000)

all adult males required to serve

officers from middle and even lower clases

Gender

French women active in revolution

July 1789: took part in storming of Bastille (fortress/prison/armory representing old regime)

Oct. 1789: 7000 Parisian women marched palace at Versaille, forced family to return to Paris (bread shortage)

made serious political demands, addressing:

lack of education

male competition in female trades

prevalence of prostituion

rapidly rising prices of bread/soap

women = “Third Estate of the Third Estate”

right to bear arms in defense of revolution

men’s opinions

seemed inapprorpriate/threatening

1793: legislative body (all male) banned all women’s clubs

defined masculinity in terms of exercising political power

unwilling to offer political rights to women, even though they “eliminated” class restrictions

religious freedom to Jews, Protestants

abolished slavery

New beginnings

Festival of Unity, 1793: first anniversary of end of monarchy

burned crowns and scepters of royal family in bonfire

released 3,000 white doves

Cathedral of Notre Dame temporarily became Temple of Reason

“Hymn to Liberty” combined church music with Enlightenment ideas

Napolean Bonaparte

r. 1799-1815

highly successful general, credited with taming the revolution, its influence through conquest

preserved moderate elements

civil equality

secular law code

religious freedom

promotion by merit

suppressed more democratic elements in military dictatorship

reconciled with Catholic Church

less liberty

intent on spreading benefits

forces subdued most of Europe, created largest empire since Romans

reforms often welcomed but also resented and resisted

ended feudalism

proclaimed equality of rights

religious toleration

codified laws

rationalized government administration

national resistance (especially from Russia, Britain) ended his empire by 1815 and ended era of French Revolution

Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)

Saint Domingue

French Caribbean colony

later renamed to Haiti

widely regarded as richest colony in world

8,000 plantations (40% of world’s sugar, 50% of world’s coffee)

500,000 slaves (majority of population)

40,000 white people (plantation owners, merchants, lawyers, petits blancs (poor whites)

3,000 gens de couleur libres (free people of color), many mixed-race

Social classes of colony

three tiers

primarily race-based, but also wealth/land-ownership

grands blancs

rich white landowners

most social and political power

right to vote in French National Assembly

petits blancs

poor whites

lacked political authority

did not meet 20-slave minimum to gain representation

gens de couleur

social status based on landholdings, number of slaves

competition with petits blancs

slaves

Representation of French Revolution

free people

grands blancs

greater authority for colony

fewer economic restrictions on trade

resented demands of petits blancs

petits blancs

equality of citizenship for all white people

white people adamantly opposed to free people of color saying that “rights of man” meant equal treatment for all free people

slaves: French Revolution challenged slave labor system

Slave revolt

warring factions

slaves, white people, free people of color

Spanish and British added to turmoil

power leaned towards slaves

led by Toussaint Louverture (former slave)

overcame internal resistance

outmaneuvered foreign powers

defeated attempt by Napoleon to reestablish French control

only completely successful slave revolt in world history

thrown off French colonial rule

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