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3. Land-Based Empires

1450-1750

3.1-3.2 Empires Expand, Administration

Land-based empires

Definition

An empire that primarily expands its territories through conquest on land rather than maritime (sea) exploration

Characteristics

vast territorial holdings

strong centralized government

bureaucracy and administrative systems

diverse populations and cultures

economic systems

agriculture

trade

taxation

Key factors

military power and strategy

technological advancements

economic resources and stability

political organization and governance

Ming dynasty (1368-1644)

founded by Zhu Yuanzhang

former Buddhist monk who led the Red Turban rebellion against the Yuan Dynasty (Mongols)

took the throne as the Hongwu Emperor

many Mongols, Muslims, Jews, Christians remained in China

returned to Song Dynasty values

tried to eliminate all signs of foreign Mongol rule

promoted Confucian learning; reestablished the civil service exam

launched Treasure Fleet commanded by Zheng He

expanded Chinese tribute and trade

consolidating power

Emperor Yongle built the Forbidden City

power concentrated in the hands of the emperor

scholar-gentry ran a bureaucracy

eunuchs (castrated men) advised the emperor and exercised great authority

Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)

Manchus invaded and conquered China

nomadic tribes north of the Great Wall

maintained separation between Manchus and Chinese

highest posts were filled by Manchus

forbade intermarriage

conquered the nomadic peoples of Central Asia

Central Asia was ruled separately from the rest of China

used locals to govern the region

did not seek to assimilate people into Manchu culture

restricted Chinese settlers and merchants in the region

consolidating power

Chinese men forced grow a queue

shave front of head, grow braid

made it easy to identify those who might rebel

imperial portraits portrayed emperors as Confucian scholars

Russian Empire (1492-1917)

expansion

south (steppes) for protection against pastoral nomads

east (Siberia) for fur (”soft gold”) to trade

west (Poland, Ukraine, Belarus) due to military rivalries with Europe

Russification

conquered peoples were forced to swear an oath to the Czar/Tsar

forced to pay tribute (cash, furs)

pressured to convert to Orthodox Christianity

influx of Russian settlers overwhelmed native populations

multi-ethnic but Russians were dominant

identity crisis

backwards European nation; several attempts to Westernize

Asian powerhouse; defeated the Mongols

Mughal Empire (1526-1761)

Muslim Turkic warriors from Central Asia

claimed descent from Chinggis Khan (Mughal: Indo-Aryan for Mongol)

conquered Delhi Sultanate in India, expanded to control almost all of India

consolidating power

policy of religious toleration towards Hindus

Emperor Akbar the Great (1556-1605)

created “state religion” blending Hinduism, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Sikhism

incorporated Hindus into government; had three Hindu wives

softened Hindu restrictions on women

promoted remarriage

discouraged child marriage

prohibited sati (self-sacrificial burning of widows)

Emperor Aurangzeb (1658-1707) reversed religious tolerance

destroyed Hindu temples, reinstated jizya tax on non-Muslims

imposed Islamic law; outlawed gambling, drinking, dancing

impact: antagonized Hindus, prompted opposition movement

Ottoman Empire (1299-1922)

Muslim Turkic warriors from Anatolia

conquered much of Middle East, North Africa, Southeast Europe

Muslim inroads into Europe

1453: Sultan Mehmed II conquered Constantinople

1481: Ottoman conquest of Balkans/Byzantine Empire

1683: Siege of Vienna - Turks defeated by Polish

stops Ottoman conquest into Europe

begins the decline of the Ottoman Empire

consolidating power

Ottoman Empire was ethnically and religiously diverse

millet system: non-Muslim communities were semi-autonomous

religious sects were governed by their own religious leaders

jizya tax on non-Muslims

devshirme: form of tribute; took Christian boys for state service

required to learn Turkish; most converted to Islam

trained for government work or military service as Janissaries

became the governing elite of the Ottoman Empire

Safavid Empire (1501-1736)

Muslim Turkic warriors from Central Asia

Shah Ismail conquered Persia (Iran), Azerbaijan, Armenia, Iraq, Afghanistan

parts of Turkey, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan

traced ancestry to Sufi religious order (Shia Muslim)

conflict with Islamic empires

as Safavids expanded, they came into contact with Ottomans and Mughals

hostilities were intensified by the Shi’ite-Sunni split

major conflicts

1514: Battle of Chaldiran

Ottomans defeat Safavids

Safavid calvary with swords fought Janissaries with cannons

illustrated importance of new gunpowder technology

1623-1639: Ottoman-Safavid Wars

Safavids built up artillery and advanced gunpowder technology

sought to reconquer lands from the Ottomans (lost)

1649-1653: Mughal-Safavid Wars

Safavids sought to captures the cities of Kabul and Kandahar

were important trading cities and strategic to the region

both sides had gunpowder weapons

despite being outnumbers, Safavids won

3.3 Belief Systems

Context

by the 1300s, Europe had already been predominantly Christian for thousands of years

after the Black Plague disrupted feudalism, many moved to cities to meet growing demands for goods and services

middle class grew in size due to an increase in global trade

bankers

merchants

traders

focused on humanism: human achievement

shift from medieval Europe’s salvation/afterlife

now personal accomplishment/happiness

focus on here and now

Catholic Church still focused on afterlife

Europeans became fascinated with ancient Greek and Roman concepts of beauty and citizenship

rediscovered through Crusades

ancient texts preserved in House of Wisdom

Renaissance

rebirth

began in Italy in Florence, Venice, Milan

became wealthy through trade

financed at a similar scale to the civilizations of classic Rome and Greece

Medici family ruled Florence (center of Renaissance)

artists like Michelangelo, Brunelleschi, Leonardo da Vinci, Donatello created art that was more realistic, using humanistic ideals learned from ancient artists

Literature

Johannes Gutenberg created the printing press in Europe

allowed easier and faster book production

now available for common people, written in local language (not just scholarly/religious)

Christianity in Europe

Protestant Reformation (1517)

Martin Luther wrote the 95 Theses

complained of the abuses of the Catholic Church

selling indulgences: paying money to have sins forgiven

simony: buying church positions

voiced his belief in a different Christian ideology

Bible is the ultimate authority, not the Church or Pope

new sects of Christianity

Lutheranism

Calvinism

Anglicism

political tensions in Europe

kings challenged authority of pope (Henry VIII of England)

Thirty Years War (1618-1648): Catholics vs. Protestants

Peace of Westphalia: reduced influence of Catholic Church

state sovereignty over political and ecclesiastical issues

people subject to laws of country, not faith

Catholic Counter Reformation (1545-1648)

Council of Trent (1545-1563): reaffirmed sacraments, reformed corrupt practices

Inquisition: religious court to judge and punish heresy

Christianity in Asia

Jesuit missionaries sought to convert Christian elite

Matteo Ricci advocated accommodation of Chinese culture

learn/dress like Chinese, study Confucianism

parallels between Christianity and Confucianism

originally found favor at Court due to scientific knowledge

science, technology, geography, mapmaking

Christians appointed head of Chinese Bureau of Astronomy

no mass conversion (200,000 out of 300 million)

pope overturned policy of accommodation

pope claimed political authority over Chinese Christians

saw as a challenge to Emperor Kangxi (Qing)

emperor prohibited Westerners from spreading Christianity

Canton system (1686): limited Europeans to five cities

Christian missionaries expelled from China (1715)

Jesuit missionaries spread Catholicism in Japan

Tokugawa Shogunate viewed Europeans as a threat to Japanese culture

expelled missionaries; executed Christians for practicing their faith

Islam in South Asia

emperor Akbar

policies of toleration to bridge the Hindu-Muslim divide

divine faith: state cult combining Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism

recruited Hindus to serve in the government

eliminated jizya tax on non-Muslims

bhakti movement gained popularity

mythical Hinduism: direct experience with divine

similar to Sufi Muslims (divinity)

1500: Sikhism

syncretic religion: blending of Islam and Hinduism

founded by Guru Nanak in Punjab region, Northern India

"There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim...only God"

drew converts from both faiths, became a separate faith

"Sikh" means “learner” or “seeker of truth”

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