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2. Networks of Exchange

1200-1450

2.1 The Silk Roads

land-based trade network from China to Europe

camel caravans trekking 4,000mi through mountains and deserts

caravanserai: inns 100 miles apart; centrals of cultural exchange

mostly luxury goods to offset cost of trip

most successful when protected by strong empires

7th-8th: Roman, Abbasid, Tang

13th-14th: all Mongol

causes of growth in Silk Road trade

new technology makes travel easier

yokes, stirrups, “frame and mattress” saddle

economic innovations

“flying cash”, credit, bills of exchange

increased demand for luxury goods

Crusades spark demand in Europe

increase in production in China/India to meet demand

2.2 The Mongols

Origins

clans of pastoral nomads on Asian steppes

herded goats and sheep; everyone was skilled horseriders/hunters

women had more independence/equality

equal warriors

could own property

freely marry/divorce

Mongol leader Temujin, born in 1162

created series of tribal alliances by defeated neighboring tribes

Kuriltai (meetings of chieftains): 1206

was elected “khan” of Mongolia

took the name Chinggis Khan

State-building

Mongols will conquer China, Central Asia, Russia, Islamic Middle East

attempt to conquer Europe, Egypt, Japan, Southeast Asia (defeated)

ruthless brutality

submit and be spared

resist and be destroyed

incorporated conquered people throughout their empire

conquered warriors join the Mongol military

skilled artisans sent to other regions of the empire

government administrators sent to other regions of the empire

Pax Mongolica (Mongolian peace)

13th-14th

centralized bureaucracy with specialized offices

from Karakorum (Mongol capital)

Mongols had highest positions, Chinese/Muslims held lower positions

elaborate census-taking made taxation possible

policy of religious toleration throughout the empire (as long as it did not interfere with government)

protected the Silk Roads

caused increase in Silk Road trade

relay stations (1 day apart) allowed for rapid communication

fostered commerce

tax breaks for caravans, free use of relay stations

creation of Ortoghs: state-approved associations of merchants

low interest loans to merchants belonging to Ortoghs

Expansion to China

Kubilai Khan invaded Song China (1235)

China is a more formidable opponent; not fully conquered until 1271

established Yuan Dynasty in China

Chinese initially favored rule of Kubilai Khan

created unified China

adopted Chinese customs

created a capital in Khanbaliq (Cambulac, present-day Beijing)

religious tolerance; improved trade with other countries

Chinese resentment grew

foreigners in government positions; dismantled civil service exam

favored Buddhism and Daoism over Confucianism

Mongols remained separated from Chinese

Mongols lost power in China

1274: Yuan Dynasty failed to conquer Japan, Indo-China (Vietnam), Burma, Java)

1350s: White Lotus Society: secret organization that resisted Mongol rule

overthrew Yuan Dynasty, founded Ming Dynasty (1368)

Ming attempted to return to Song/Tang era

Expansion to Persia

il-khanate (Hulegu) invaded Abbasid territories (1251)

destroyed Baghdad (1258)

killed caliph, 200,000 people

continued westward deeper into the Middle East

significant damage to Persia and Iraq agriculture

large number of peasants pushed off land

agricultural land turned to pasture

irrigation networks destroyed

1260: expansion stopped by Muslim Mamluks of Egypt

impact on Middle East

Mongols ruled with Persian bureaucrats

cultural assimilation: Mongols converted to Islam, abandoned pastoralism

il-khanate collapsed in 1330s; Mongols assimilated instead of being driven out

Timur (Turkic warrior) temporarily rebuilt Mongol Empire in Central Asia

independent Persia later reemerged as Safavid Empire (1500s)

founded by Sufis; forcibly imposed Shia Islam

in opposition to Sunni Ottoman Empire in Turkey

Expansion to Russia

Golden Horde (Batu) invaded Russia (1237)

conquered Russian cities, forcing them to pay tribute (taxes)

Mongols did not occupy Russian cities; continued to live in steppes

1240: looted, destroyed city of Kiev-Rus for resisting

1241: Golden Horde defeated Hungarian calvary (considered best in Europe)

Prince of Moscow used tribute money to develop army to resist Mongols

coalition of city-states defeated Golden Horde (1380)

by 16th, Russia defeated last of Mongols

impact on Russia

Moscow becomes new center of Russia

Pax Mongolica (Mongolian peace)

2.5 Cultural consequences of connectivity

2.6 Environmental consequences of connectivity

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