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2. Networks of Exchange

1200-1450

2.1 The Silk Roads

land-based trade network from China to Europe

camel caravans trekking 4,000mi through mountains and deserts

caravanserai: inns 100 miles apart; centrals of cultural exchange

mostly luxury goods to offset cost of trip

most successful when protected by strong empires

7th-8th: Roman, Abbasid, Tang

13th-14th: all Mongol

causes of growth in Silk Road trade

new technology makes travel easier

yokes, stirrups, “frame and mattress” saddle

economic innovations

“flying cash”, credit, bills of exchange

increased demand for luxury goods

Crusades spark demand in Europe

increase in production in China/India to meet demand

2.2 The Mongols

Origins

clans of pastoral nomads on Asian steppes

herded goats and sheep; everyone was skilled horseriders/hunters

women had more independence/equality

equal warriors

could own property

freely marry/divorce

Mongol leader Temujin, born in 1162

created series of tribal alliances by defeated neighboring tribes

Kuriltai (meetings of chieftains): 1206

was elected “khan” of Mongolia

took the name Chinggis Khan

State-building

Mongols will conquer China, Central Asia, Russia, Islamic Middle East

attempt to conquer Europe, Egypt, Japan, Southeast Asia (defeated)

ruthless brutality

submit and be spared

resist and be destroyed

incorporated conquered people throughout their empire

conquered warriors join the Mongol military

skilled artisans sent to other regions of the empire

government administrators sent to other regions of the empire

Pax Mongolica (Mongolian peace)

13th-14th

centralized bureaucracy with specialized offices

from Karakorum (Mongol capital)

Mongols had highest positions, Chinese/Muslims held lower positions

elaborate census-taking made taxation possible

policy of religious toleration throughout the empire (as long as it did not interfere with government)

protected the Silk Roads

caused increase in Silk Road trade

relay stations (1 day apart) allowed for rapid communication

fostered commerce

tax breaks for caravans, free use of relay stations

creation of Ortoghs: state-approved associations of merchants

low interest loans to merchants belonging to Ortoghs

Expansion to China

Kubilai Khan invaded Song China (1235)

China is a more formidable opponent; not fully conquered until 1271

established Yuan Dynasty in China

Chinese initially favored rule of Kubilai Khan

created unified China

adopted Chinese customs

created a capital in Khanbaliq (Cambulac, present-day Beijing)

religious tolerance; improved trade with other countries

Chinese resentment grew

foreigners in government positions; dismantled civil service exam

favored Buddhism and Daoism over Confucianism

Mongols remained separated from Chinese

Mongols lost power in China

1274: Yuan Dynasty failed to conquer Japan, Indo-China (Vietnam), Burma, Java)

1350s: White Lotus Society: secret organization that resisted Mongol rule

overthrew Yuan Dynasty, founded Ming Dynasty (1368)

Ming attempted to return to Song/Tang era

Expansion to Persia

il-khanate (Hulegu) invaded Abbasid territories (1251)

destroyed Baghdad (1258)

killed caliph, 200,000 people

continued westward deeper into the Middle East

significant damage to Persia and Iraq agriculture

large number of peasants pushed off land

agricultural land turned to pasture

irrigation networks destroyed

1260: expansion stopped by Muslim Mamluks of Egypt

impact on Middle East

Mongols ruled with Persian bureaucrats

cultural assimilation: Mongols converted to Islam, abandoned pastoralism

il-khanate collapsed in 1330s; Mongols assimilated instead of being driven out

Timur (Turkic warrior) temporarily rebuilt Mongol Empire in Central Asia

independent Persia later reemerged as Safavid Empire (1500s)

founded by Sufis; forcibly imposed Shia Islam

in opposition to Sunni Ottoman Empire in Turkey

Expansion to Russia

Golden Horde (Batu) invaded Russia (1237)

conquered Russian cities, forcing them to pay tribute (taxes)

Mongols did not occupy Russian cities; continued to live in steppes

1240: looted, destroyed city of Kiev-Rus for resisting

1241: Golden Horde defeated Hungarian calvary (considered best in Europe)

Prince of Moscow used tribute money to develop army to resist Mongols

coalition of city-states defeated Golden Horde (1380)

by 16th, Russia defeated last of Mongols

impact on Russia

Moscow becomes new center of Russia

accepted value of more centralized leadership of region

led to creation of Russian Czar

strengthened Russian Orthodox Church

Russian princes improved military by adopting Mongol weaponry

Global society

economic: promoted international trade by securing Silk Roads

political: created diplomatic relationships across Eurasia

cultural

religious tolerance drew missionaries of all faiths

forced relocation of skilled craftsmen created diverse cities

exchange of knowledge, innovation, technology

Chinese innovation flows west, Arab astronomy flows east

Europeans reap most benefits (knowledge without invasion)

environmental

Black Death spreads

China (1331) → Middle East → Europe (1347)

densely populated cities decimated, losing 50-90% of population

social changes in Europe: peasant revolts undermine serfdom

Silk Road trade decreases; Sea Roads become more important

2.3 The Sea Roads

Overview

Indian Ocean trading networks

between East Africa, Middle East, India, southeast Asia, China

carried luxury goods and bulk commodities

lower transportation costs

ships could carry more goods than animals

causes of growth

new technology made travel easier

Chinese junks, Arab dhows

lateen sails (triangular) to catch winds from all directions

stern-post rudder for stability and more maneuverability

compass for determining direction of travel

astrolabe for determining location

monsoons: alternating wind currents

northeast in summer (towards India), southwest in winter (towards Africa)

merchants had to time voyages carefully

often remained in port cities for long periods of time

diasporic communities: traders from all over make port cities their home

Growth of states

Srivijaya Empire (670-1025)

Buddhist

Indonesia

source of spices (cloves, camphor, pepper, sandalwood)

large naval fleet allowed for extensive maritime traade

speculation: Malays of Srivijaya may have colonized Madagascar

declined due to warfare with Chola Dynasty (India)

Malacca (1401-1511)

wealthy Muslim city-state based on trade

imposed fees on ships passing Strait of Malacca

narrow inlet that ships used to travel between India and China

sultan so powerful in 1400s that he expanded the state into Sumatra, southern Malay Peninsula

declined due to Portuguese conquest (1511)

Zheng He

Chinese naval expeditions (1405)

Ming Dynasty Treasure Fleet

300 ships, 27,000 crew

goal: spread tribute system, open new markets for trade

expeditions ended suddenly (1433)

death of emperor led to loss of support

official records were destroyed

China is the “Middle Kingdom”

all good things would come to them

Chinese must focus on a new danger from the north (Mongols)

impact

expanded China’s political influence

greatly expanded Chinese trade

brought new understanding of world beyond China

left door open for Europeans to dominate

2.4 The Sand Roads

Trans-Saharan trade network

Sahara Desert: 3.6 million square miles

only 800 square miles are habitable oases

7 north-south routes

2 east-west routes

causes of growth

Muslim traders brought camels to Africa (3rd)

could go 10 days without water

made travel from oasis to oasis possible

“mattress and frame” saddle made it easier to carry heavy loads

state-building from growth of trade

Ghana Empire (700-1200)

Mali Empire (1230-1500)

Songhai Empire (1430-1591)

Hausa Kingdoms (1000-1850)

2.5 Cultural consequences of connectivity

diffusion of different religions

Hinduism: Sea Roads

Southeast Asia (Srivijaya Empire, Khmer Empire)

Buddhism: Silk and Sea Roads

Southeast Asia (Khmer Empire, Vietnam)

East Asia (China, Japan, Korea)

Islam: Silk, Sea, Sand Roads

India (Delhi Sultanate)

Southeast Asia (Malacca)

Africa (Swahili city-states, Ghana, Mali)

transfer of science and technology

Islamic scholars translated texts into Arabic

paper-making techniques from China

movable type printing from China

mathematics texts from India

Arabic numerals

advances in algebra

medicine from Greeks, Mesopotamians, Egyptians

advances in hospital care, including surgery

improvements in agricultural efficiency

Champa rice (Vietnam → China)

irrigation techniques, water management

seafaring technology

compass from China

stern-post rudder from China

astrolabe from ancient Greece

lateen sails from Arab dhows

movement of travelers

Marco Polo (13th)

merchant from Venice, Italy

traveled to court of Kublai Khan (Mongol control of China)

wrote book describing China’s size, wealth, urbanization

captivated Europeans and caused denial

Ibn Battuta (14th)

spent 30 years traveling through the Muslim world

wrote a book describing the places he visited

Margery Kempe (15th)

English woman who went on pilgrimages to Jerusalem, Spain, Germany, Rome

could not read or write; dictated to scribe

one of first autobiographies

significant for perspective of middle-class medieval women

2.6 Environmental consequences of connectivity

agricultural effects

migration of crops

Champa rice (Vietnam → China)

bananas (India → sub-Saharan Africa)

citrus (Southeast Asia → Europe)

sugar (India → Europe)

grapes, wine (Europe → China)

tea (China → India, Arabia)

environmental degradation

increases in population put pressures on resources

Great Zimbabwe: overgrazing so severe, people had to abandon city (late 1400s)

feudal Europe: overuse of farmland, deforestation led to soil erosion, reducing agricultural production

spread of disease: Black Death/Bubonic Plague

spread by Mongol conquest: China → Central Asia → Europe

caravanserai housed people and animals togehter

loss of life

approximately 1/3 of Europe’s population

about 25 million Asians between 1332 and 1347

South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa spared (few trading ports in region)