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AP Biology Notes

AP Biology Outline

Unit 1: Chemistry of Life

Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Unit 3: Cellular Energetics

Unit 4: Cell Communication and Cell Cycle

Unit 5: Heredity

Unit 6: Gene Expression and Regulation

Unit 7: Natural Selection

Unit 8: Ecology

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Unit 1: Chemistry of Life

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Unit 1: Chemistry of Life⁠

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Carbon

Carbon is essential to life

Organic compound == carbon

Inorganic compound != include carbon

Carbon leads to diversity

Determining factors of organic molecules’ properties

Carbon Backbone - gives structure shape, function

Functional Groups - part of molecule that participates in reactions

Backbone is unchanged, functional groups that react

Tetravalence

Has four valence (outer shell) electrons (covalent)

Can bond with 4 other atoms

Create wide array of molecules

Atom unstable unless valence shell is full, reacts with other atoms

Organic Chemistry

Branch of chem that studies carbon compounds

Carbon Backbone

Central part of an organic molecule, determines structure (and function/properties) of molecule

Rings, linear, branching, and double bonds

Shape determines function -- variety of different molecules

Hydrocarbons

Long chains containing carbon and hydrogen

Make up lipids

Contains lots of energy (lots of bonds, for ex. fat)

Nonpolar (Hydrophobic) - only polar if distribution of charge with an electronegative charge

(No O, Su, N -- electronegative atoms)

Isomers

Structure leads to function

Compounds with same formula but different arrangement of atoms

Structural

Carbon backbone is different

Geometric

Groups branching off backbone are different (functional groups)

Carbons are double bonded

Functional groups on opposite sides = trans

Functional groups on same side = cis

Enantiomers/Stereoisomers

Mirror images of structure

Example: L-Dopa and D-Dopa - only difference is structure

L-Dopa treats Parkinson’s, D-Dopa inactive

Functional Groups - branch off Carbon Backbone

Participates in chemical reactions***

Hydroxyl

Alcohols (OH-)

Carbonyl

Ketones (acetone) (carbon double bonded with oxygen)

Aldehydes (propanol)

Carboxyl

Carboxylic acids, ie. acetic acid

Carbon double bonded to oxygen oxygen single bonded to another oxygen

Can be ionized or nonionized

Donate H+ ions to solution, acidic

Amino

Amines (glycine)

Neutral by itself

NH2 - can Ionize and become NH3+, accepts H+ ions (base)

Sulfhydryl

Thiols (ethanethiol)

SH-

Phosphate

Organic phosphates i.e. glyceral phosphate (PO4)

Phosphorus bonded to four oxygens two oxygens have negative charges

In DNA, ATP, GTP etc.

Important phosphate groups

Macromolecules

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Polymer

Large molecule consisting of many identical/similar building blocks (monomers)

Reactions:

First macromolecules

Building blocks for life

Volcanoes on earth released gasses like Carbon oxides, water vapor, methane, etc.

Water formed primordial seas, location of first macromolecules and first living organisms - 3.6 billion years ago

Stromatolites

Stanley Miller made experiment simulate conditions on early earth, to create macromolecules abiotically

Included gasses, rain, and electricity

Gases reacted with one another

Water condensed and formed “sea” found monomers, the first macromolecules

Abiotic synthesis of monomers → chemical reactions

Earth covered in volcanoes, volatile, releasing gasses in atmosphere → formed primordial seas where sea meets land is where life started.

Start of life - took 1 billion years

Have right elements - CHNOPS

Elements come together to form the first monomers (amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, monosaccharides, etc. building blocks)

Form polymers (proteins, triglycerides, nucleic acids, etc.)

Form cells → bacterial life

DNA (bases) and Proteins (amino acids) compare amounts that organisms share in common, more in common the more similar the organisms are

Molecular homology - things shared in common due to common ancestry

Monomers are repeating sub units in polymers

Fused by dehydration synthesis (remove water) and defused using hydrolysis (add water)

Carbohydrates

Lipids

Proteins

Nucleic Acids

Water

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