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Idea/Theory
Originator
Year
Summary
1
Prospect Theory
Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky
1979
Prospect Theory is a behavioral economic theory that was introduced by psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in 1979. It describes how people make decisions under uncertainty and how they evaluate potential gains and losses. The theory is based on the idea that people do not make decisions based on absolute value, but rather they evaluate options based on perceived gains or losses. Additionally, the theory proposes that people are risk-averse when it comes to gains and risk-seeking when it comes to losses. Prospect Theory has been widely studied and has had a significant impact on fields such as economics, finance, and psychology.
2
Decision Theory
John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern
1944
Decision theory is an interdisciplinary field that aims to study the process of decision making. It provides a framework for analyzing decision problems, identifying potential solutions, and selecting the best course of action. Decision theory draws on concepts from mathematics, economics, psychology, and philosophy to develop models that are useful in a variety of real-world contexts, such as business, politics, and personal life. Some of the key concepts in decision theory include utility, probability, risk, and uncertainty.
3
Intentional Stance
Daniel Dennett
1987
Intentional Stance is a philosophical concept introduced by philosopher Daniel Dennett. It refers to the way in which humans view other beings as having beliefs, desires, and intentions that guide their behavior. In other words, the intentional stance is the way in which we attribute mental states to others in order to understand and predict their actions. This concept has applications in fields such as psychology, sociology, and artificial intelligence.
4
Game Theory
John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern
1944
Game Theory is a branch of mathematics that studies decision-making strategies and interactions between individuals or groups. It is commonly used in economics, political science, and psychology, among other fields. The theory examines how people make choices based on their understanding of the potential outcomes of their decisions and their expectations of how others will act. It is a complex subject that involves advanced mathematical concepts, but its principles can be applied to a wide range of real-world scenarios, from business negotiations to military strategies.
5
Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura
1977
The Social Learning Theory is a psychological theory that suggests that people can learn new behaviors and attitudes by observing others. It was developed by psychologist Albert Bandura and emphasizes the importance of modeling and imitation in the learning process. The theory suggests that individuals can learn through direct observation, as well as through media and other indirect forms of communication. It has been applied to a wide range of areas, including education, psychology, and criminology.
6
Control Theory
William Ross Ashby, Norbert Wiener, and John Wiley
1960
Control Theory is a branch of mathematics and engineering that deals with the analysis and design of systems with inputs and outputs. It is concerned with controlling or regulating the behavior of dynamic systems, such as mechanical systems, electrical systems, or biological systems. Control Theory has applications in a wide range of fields, including aerospace, robotics, economics, and biology. The principles of Control Theory are used to design controllers that can manipulate the inputs of a system to achieve desired outputs, or to analyze the stability and performance of a system.
7
Pareto Front
Vilfredo Pareto
1906
The Pareto Front is a concept in optimization and decision-making, named after economist Vilfredo Pareto. It refers to the set of optimal solutions that cannot be improved upon in one objective without sacrificing performance in another objective. In other words, it represents the trade-offs between different criteria in a decision-making process. The Pareto Front is often used in engineering, economics, and other fields where multiple criteria must be considered when making decisions.
8
Stimulus-Value-Role Model
John Thibaut and Harold Kelley
1978
The Stimulus-Value-Role Model is a theory used in social psychology to explain how relationships develop over time. It suggests that initial attraction is based on external factors, such as physical appearance or behavior (Stimulus), which leads to further exploration of the person's values and beliefs (Value), and eventually a deeper commitment to the relationship (Role).
9
Symbolic Convergence Theory
Ernest Bormann
1980
Symbolic Convergence Theory is a communication theory that explains how group communication and shared emotions can create a sense of community and common identity. Developed by Ernest Bormann in the 1970s, the theory suggests that when individuals share stories and symbols, they can create a shared reality that unites them. This shared reality can be seen in many different types of groups, including families, sports teams, and even nations. By understanding how symbolic convergence works, researchers can better understand how groups form, communicate, and maintain a sense of identity over time.
10
Interpersonal Deception Theory
David Buller and Judee Burgoon
1990
Interpersonal Deception Theory is a communication theory that focuses on the use of deception in interpersonal relationships. It suggests that people use various tactics to deceive others, such as falsifying information, withholding information, or manipulating their behavior. The theory also explores the ways in which people can detect deception and the factors that influence their ability to do so. Overall, Interpersonal Deception Theory provides insight into the complex nature of human communication and relationships.
11
Covariation Model
Kelley and Michotte
1977
The Covariation Model is a theory in social psychology that is used to explain how people attribute behavior to either internal or external factors. It suggests that people use three types of information - consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency - to make these attributions. Consensus refers to the extent to which others behave similarly in a given situation, distinctiveness refers to the extent to which the behavior is unique to the situation, and consistency refers to the extent to which the behavior is repeated over time. The Covariation Model proposes that when people observe behavior, they consider these three types of information to make a judgment about whether the behavior is caused by internal or external factors.
12
Availability Heuristic
Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky
1974
The Availability Heuristic is a cognitive bias that occurs when people make judgments about the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples of it come to mind. This bias can lead to overestimating the frequency of rare events and underestimating the frequency of common events. The Availability Heuristic has been studied extensively in psychology and has important implications for decision-making and problem-solving.
13
Contact Hypothesis
Gordon Allport and Thomas Pettigrew
1954
Contact Hypothesis is a psychological theory that suggests that increased contact between members of different social groups can reduce prejudice and improve intergroup relations. The theory proposes that the more contact individuals have with members of different groups, the more they will come to see those individuals as individuals rather than simply members of a social group. This can lead to reduced stereotyping, increased empathy, and improved intergroup relations. The Contact Hypothesis has been applied in a variety of contexts, including race relations, gender relations, and international relations.
14
Epistemological Weighting Hypothesis
Alison Gopnik and David Sobel
2010
The Epistemological Weighting Hypothesis is a theory in cognitive science that suggests that people assign different weights or values to different sources of information when making decisions or forming beliefs. It proposes that individuals use a variety of cues, such as the credibility or expertise of the source, the consistency of the information with their prior beliefs, and the emotional or social context in which the information is presented, to decide how much weight to give to a particular piece of information. The hypothesis has been applied in various domains, including psychology, philosophy, and artificial intelligence.
15
Explanatory Coherence
No answer provided.
1995
Explanatory Coherence refers to the degree to which an explanation is consistent with other beliefs or knowledge held by an individual. It is an important concept in cognitive psychology and is related to the idea of cognitive consistency. When an explanation is coherent, it is more likely to be accepted and believed by the individual. This can be important in many areas, including education, science, and communication.
16
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
Daniel Batson and his colleagues.
1971
The Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis is a theory in psychology that suggests that people are motivated to help others based on their level of empathy towards them. This theory proposes that when individuals feel empathy towards someone in need, they are more likely to engage in altruistic behavior, meaning they will act selflessly to benefit the other person without expecting anything in return. The Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis has been the subject of numerous studies and debates within the field of psychology.
17
Filter Theory
Triesman and Deutsch
1957
Filter Theory proposes that individuals selectively attend to certain information in their environment while filtering out other information. This theory has been applied in various fields such as psychology, communication, and marketing. It suggests that people have limited processing capacity and therefore must prioritize what they pay attention to.
18
Opponent-Process Theory
Richard Solomon and John Corbit
1972
The Opponent-Process Theory is a psychological theory that suggests that emotional reactions to stimuli are followed by opposite emotional reactions. For example, if a person experiences fear in response to a stimulus, they will then experience relief or a decrease in fear once the stimulus is removed. This theory has been applied to a variety of areas, including addiction and color perception.
19
Pluralistic Ignorance
John Darley and Bibb Latane
1972
Pluralistic Ignorance is a social phenomenon where individuals in a group believe that their personal views are different from the group's views, even when the majority of the group holds the same opinion. This can lead to conformity and a lack of dissenting views, as individuals do not want to be seen as different or unpopular.
20
Solastalgia
Glenn Albrecht
2003
Solastalgia is a term coined by Australian environmental philosopher Glenn Albrecht, which describes the feeling of distress or unease caused by environmental change or degradation in one's home environment. It is a combination of the words "solace" and "nostalgia." Albrecht created this term to describe the psychological impact of climate change and other environmental issues on people who are deeply connected to their home environment.
21
Symbioscene
Lynn Margulis and Dorion Sagan
2020
Symbioscene is a term used to describe a mutually beneficial relationship between different organisms or species in an ecosystem. It refers to the interdependent nature of living organisms and how they rely on each other to survive and thrive. This concept is important in understanding the delicate balance of ecosystems and the impact that human activity can have on them.
22
Reactance Theory
Jacks Brehm
1975
Reactance Theory is a psychological theory that suggests that people have a natural tendency to resist attempts to limit their freedom or autonomy. This resistance can manifest in a variety of ways, such as increased desire for the restricted behavior or attitude, or even outright defiance. The theory has been applied in various fields, including marketing and communication, to better understand how people react to messages that attempt to persuade or influence them.
23
Repulsion Hypothesis
Johannes Kepler
1904
The Repulsion Hypothesis is a theory in psychology that suggests that people are more likely to be attracted to those who are dissimilar to them, rather than those who are similar. This theory is based on the idea that people are drawn to others who possess qualities or characteristics that they lack, as opposed to those who possess similar qualities or characteristics. The Repulsion Hypothesis has been studied extensively in the field of social psychology and has been used to explain a wide range of social phenomena, including interpersonal attraction, prejudice, and discrimination.
24
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf
1929
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, also known as linguistic relativity, is the theory that the language we use influences and shapes our perception of the world around us. This hypothesis suggests that the structure of a language affects the way its speakers think and perceive reality. Some proponents of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis argue that language even determines the way we think, while others suggest that it simply influences our thought processes. The hypothesis was first put forth by linguist Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee Whorf in the early 20th century, and has been the subject of much debate and controversy in the linguistic community.
25
Symbolic Convergence Theory
Ernest Bormann
1980
Symbolic Convergence Theory is a communication theory that explains how group communication can create a shared consciousness or culture, based on shared symbols, fantasies, and interpretations. Developed by Ernest Bormann, this theory suggests that groups can develop a shared identity and sense of purpose through the use of symbolic language and storytelling. The theory is often used to analyze group communication in organizations, social movements, and other contexts where shared meaning and identity are important.
26
Urban-Overload Hypothesis
John M. Carroll and Rosalind H. Picard
1999
The Urban-Overload Hypothesis is a theory that suggests that people living in urban areas are more likely to experience stress due to factors such as noise, pollution, and overcrowding. This stress can lead to negative health outcomes and a decreased quality of life. The theory has been studied extensively in the field of urban sociology and has influenced urban planning and design.
27
Transtheoretical Model of Change
James O. Prochaska, Carlo C. DiClemente, and colleagues.
1982
The Transtheoretical Model of Change is a theoretical framework used in psychology and healthcare to understand how individuals move through different stages of behavior change. It was originally developed in the 1980s by James Prochaska and Carlo DiClemente, and it has since been applied to a wide range of health-related behaviors, including smoking cessation, weight loss, and substance abuse. The model proposes that change occurs in five stages: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance. Each stage represents a different level of readiness to change, and individuals may move back and forth between stages before successfully adopting a new behavior. The Transtheoretical Model of Change has been widely studied and validated, and it continues to be a useful tool for healthcare providers and researchers.
28
Bounded Rationality
Herbert A. Simon
1979
Bounded Rationality is a term coined by economist Herbert Simon to describe the limitations of human decision-making. It refers to the idea that people make decisions based on incomplete information, limited cognitive abilities, and time constraints. This theory suggests that individuals use shortcuts or heuristics to simplify complex decisions, rather than considering all available options. Bounded rationality has important implications for fields such as psychology, economics, and public policy.
29
Punctuated Equilibrium
Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge
1972
Punctuated Equilibrium is a theory in evolutionary biology that suggests that species often experience long periods of relative stability, or stasis, punctuated by rapid bursts of evolutionary change. This idea was first proposed by paleontologists Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould in 1972, and has since become a widely accepted explanation for the pattern of evolution seen in the fossil record. Punctuated Equilibrium contrasts with the traditional view of evolution as a slow and steady process of gradual change, and emphasizes the role of environmental factors and genetic variation in driving rapid evolutionary shifts.
30
Personal Identity Theory
Derek Parfit, John Locke, Bernard Williams, and David Lewis
1971
Personal Identity Theory is a philosophical concept that explores the nature of personal identity and what constitutes a person over time. It examines questions such as whether identity is determined by physical or psychological factors, and whether identity is continuous or discontinuous over time. The theory has been developed by numerous philosophers throughout history, and continues to be an active area of research and debate.
31
Symbolic interactionism
George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer.
1930
Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that focuses on the ways in which individuals create and maintain meaning in their everyday lives through their interactions with others. It emphasizes the importance of symbols, such as language and gestures, in shaping social reality and how individuals interpret and respond to those symbols. This perspective also emphasizes the role of the individual in shaping social structures and institutions, rather than seeing them as fixed and immutable. Overall, symbolic interactionism provides a valuable framework for understanding the complex ways in which individuals and society interact and shape each other.
32
Propinquity Effect
1950
The Propinquity Effect is a social psychology concept that suggests that people are more likely to form close relationships with those who are physically closer to them. This could be due to increased opportunities for interaction and familiarity. The term "propinquity" refers to nearness in place or time.
33
Restraint Bias
Eric Johnson and Daniel Goldstein
2021
Restraint Bias is a cognitive bias that refers to the tendency of people to overestimate their ability to control impulsive behavior or temptation. This bias can lead to poor decision-making, as individuals may put themselves in situations where they are more likely to give in to temptation or engage in impulsive behavior. For example, someone who is trying to stick to a healthy diet may overestimate their ability to resist the temptation of junk food and end up eating unhealthy snacks. Understanding the impact of restraint bias can help individuals make better decisions and avoid situations where they are more likely to give in to temptation.
34
Realistic Conflict Theory
Muzafar Sherif and Muzafer Sherif
1954
Realistic Conflict Theory is a social psychological theory that explains intergroup conflict as a result of competition over limited resources, such as land, power, or access to opportunities. It suggests that when groups perceive that their interests are threatened, they are more likely to engage in conflict with other groups. The theory has been applied to various contexts, including ethnic and racial conflict, intergroup prejudice, and international relations.
35
Antifragility
Nassim Nicholas Taleb
2012
Antifragility is a concept introduced by Nassim Nicholas Taleb in his book "Antifragile: Things That Gain from Disorder". It refers to the ability of a system or entity to not only withstand stress and unpredictability, but to actually thrive and improve from it. In contrast to something that is simply "resilient" (i.e. able to bounce back from stress), an antifragile system actively benefits from challenges and upheaval. Taleb argues that many natural systems, such as the human body and ecosystems, exhibit antifragility, and that humans can also cultivate antifragility in their personal and professional lives.
36
Coevolution
Peter Raven and Paul Erhlich.
1859
Coevolution refers to the process in which two or more species reciprocally affect each other's evolution. This can occur through a variety of mechanisms, such as predator-prey relationships, mutualistic interactions, or competitive interactions. Coevolution is an important concept in ecology and evolutionary biology, as it can have significant impacts on the diversity and structure of ecosystems.
37
The Principle of Least Effort
William James and Carl F. Gauss
1929
The Principle of Least Effort refers to the tendency for individuals to choose the path of least resistance or effort when making decisions or taking action. This principle is often applied in fields such as psychology, economics, and engineering to explain human behavior and optimize systems for efficiency.
38
Keynesian economics
John Maynard Keynes
1936
Keynesian economics is an economic theory that was developed by economist John Maynard Keynes. It emphasizes the role of government intervention in managing the economy, particularly during times of economic downturns. The theory promotes the idea that government spending can stimulate economic growth and reduce unemployment, and that a laissez-faire approach to the economy can lead to economic instability. Keynesian economics has been highly influential in shaping economic policy in many countries around the world, particularly in the post-World War II era.
39
Rationalization Trap
Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck
2002
The Rationalization Trap is a psychological phenomenon where people justify their actions or decisions even when presented with evidence that contradicts their beliefs. This can lead to a closed-mindedness and an inability to recognize and correct mistakes. It is important to be aware of the Rationalization Trap in order to make rational and informed decisions.
40
Small World Theory
Stanley Milgram
1967
The Small World Theory is a concept in sociology and psychology that states that everyone in the world is connected to each other through a chain of no more than six people. This theory was popularized by the "six degrees of separation" concept, which suggests that any two people are connected by a chain of acquaintance that is no more than six people long. The idea behind the Small World Theory is that social networks are highly interconnected, and that it is possible to reach anyone in the world through a small number of intermediaries.
41
Spiral of Silence Theory
Noelle-Neumann
1974
The Spiral of Silence Theory is a political science and mass communication theory developed by German political scientist Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann in the late 20th century. The theory suggests that people are more likely to remain silent on an issue if they feel that their views are in the minority, while those who hold the majority opinion are more likely to speak out. This creates a spiral effect, where the minority opinion becomes less visible and the majority opinion becomes more dominant, leading to a perceived social norm. The theory has been applied to various fields, including politics, media, and social media.
42
Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
Schachter and Singer
1927
The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion, proposed by Schachter and Singer in 1962, suggests that emotions are the result of a combination of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation. This theory posits that when we experience a physiological response, such as increased heart rate or sweating, we then try to interpret the reason for that response. The interpretation of the situation then leads to the experience of the emotion. For example, if we are on a roller coaster and our body experiences physiological arousal, we might interpret that arousal as fear, which then leads to the experience of feeling scared.
43
Unconscious Thought Theory
Dijksterhuis and Nordgren
2010
The Unconscious Thought Theory suggests that decisions made after a period of unconscious thought are often more accurate and successful than those made after a period of conscious deliberation. This theory emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind in decision-making processes.
44
Ultimate Attribution Error
Milton Rokeach and Melvin J. Lerner
1991
The Ultimate Attribution Error is a psychological concept that refers to the tendency of individuals to attribute the behavior of others to their personality traits, rather than considering situational factors that may have influenced their behavior. This can lead to misunderstandings and unfair judgments of others.
45
Social Representation Theory
Serge Moscovici and colleagues.
1976
Social Representation Theory is a concept that originated in social psychology and is used to explain how people create shared knowledge and understanding of the world around them. It suggests that individuals in a society use communication and social interaction to develop common beliefs and values, which in turn shape their perceptions and experiences. Social Representation Theory has been applied in various fields, including health, education, and media studies, to explore how social groups construct and interpret information.
46
Attachment Theory
John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth
1958
Attachment Theory is a psychological model that explains the dynamics of interpersonal relationships between individuals. It was initially proposed by John Bowlby, a British psychoanalyst, who believed that a secure attachment bond between a child and caregiver is essential for healthy emotional development. The theory suggests that the quality of this attachment bond influences an individual's beliefs about themselves, others, and the world around them. It has been widely applied to various fields, including developmental psychology, clinical psychology, and social work.
47
Chaos Theory
Edward Lorenz, Robert May, and James Yorke
1972
Chaos Theory is a branch of mathematics that studies the behavior of dynamic systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions. It deals with the phenomenon known as the butterfly effect, where a small change in one part of a system can result in large differences in the system's behavior over time. Chaos theory has applications in many fields, including physics, engineering, economics, and biology, among others.
48
Hebbian Theory
Donald Hebb
1949
Hebbian Theory is a theory in neuroscience that proposes that when two neurons are repeatedly activated at the same time, the connection between them strengthens. It was first proposed by Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb and is often summarized by the phrase "cells that fire together, wire together." This theory is important in understanding how learning and memory occur in the brain, as well as in the development of artificial neural networks.
49
Longtermism
William MacAskill and Toby Ord.
2020
Longtermism is a philosophical and ethical approach that emphasizes the importance of considering the long-term impacts of our actions. This way of thinking suggests that we should prioritize actions that promote the well-being and flourishing of future generations, even if it means sacrificing some short-term benefits. Longtermism has gained significant attention in recent years, particularly in the context of global challenges such as climate change, nuclear war, and pandemics. Advocates of longtermism argue that by focusing on the long-term, we can make more informed and responsible decisions that benefit not just ourselves, but all of humanity.
50
Automation Theory
Joseph Weizenbaum and Norbert Wiener.
1950
Automation Theory is a field of study that focuses on the design and application of automated systems. It includes the development of algorithms, software, and hardware that can be used to automate various processes and tasks. The theory is rooted in the idea that automation can improve efficiency, reduce errors, and increase productivity. It has applications in a wide range of industries, including manufacturing, healthcare, and finance.
51
Information Theory
Claude Shannon
1948
Information Theory is a branch of mathematics that deals with the quantification, storage, and communication of information. It was first introduced by Claude Shannon in 1948, and has since been applied in many fields such as computer science, electrical engineering, and physics. The theory provides a framework for understanding how information is transmitted and how much information can be transmitted through a given channel. It also considers the effects of noise and interference on the transmission of information. Information Theory has had a significant impact on the development of communication technologies such as the internet and wireless communication.
52
Complex Systems Theory
Melanie Mitchell, John Holland, Stuart Kauffman, Murray Gell-Mann, and others.
1970
Complex Systems Theory is a field of study that explores the behavior of complex systems, including but not limited to biological organisms, social networks, and economic markets. The theory posits that complex systems are composed of interconnected elements that interact with each other in nonlinear ways, leading to emergent properties and behaviors that cannot be predicted by analyzing individual components in isolation. This interdisciplinary approach draws on principles from mathematics, physics, computer science, and other fields to understand the dynamics of complex systems and their applications in various domains.
53
Contextual Adaptation
L. L. Whyte and G. J. Madden
1942
Contextual Adaptation refers to the ability of an individual or a system to adjust and adapt to different contexts or environments. This concept is often discussed in the fields of psychology, sociology, and biology, as it plays a crucial role in the survival and success of an organism or a society. In psychology, contextual adaptation refers to the ability of a person to adjust their behavior and emotions to fit the demands of different situations. In sociology, it refers to the ability of a society to adapt to changing economic, political, and social conditions. In biology, contextual adaptation refers to the ability of an organism to adjust its behavior, physiology, or morphology to fit the environmental conditions it is exposed to. Overall, contextual adaptation is a key concept in understanding how individuals and systems can thrive and succeed in different contexts and environments.
54
Computational Irreducibility
Stephen Wolfram
2002
Computational irreducibility is a theory in computer science that suggests that some systems may not be capable of being predicted or simplified beyond a certain point. This means that even if we have access to all the necessary information about a system, we may not be able to accurately predict its future behavior without actually running it through every possible scenario. This has implications in fields such as artificial intelligence, where it may not be possible to create algorithms that can accurately predict the behavior of complex systems.
55
Teleology
Aristotle, Plato, and Thomas Aquinas.
Aristotle first developed the concept of Teleology in the year 350 BC.
Teleology is the philosophical concept that suggests that things have a purpose or a goal. It is often associated with the idea of the "final cause," which refers to the ultimate end or goal of something. Teleology has been a subject of debate among philosophers for centuries, with some arguing that it is a fundamental aspect of the universe, while others view it as a flawed or outdated concept. Despite the disagreements, the concept of teleology has had significant influence on various fields of study, including biology, psychology, and theology.
56
Actor-Network Theory
Bruno Latour and Michel Callon
1986
Actor-Network Theory (ANT) is a sociological and philosophical theory that emphasizes the importance of both human and non-human actors in shaping social networks and structures. It posits that everything in the world, whether animate or inanimate, has agency and contributes to the construction of social reality. ANT challenges traditional sociological theories that focus solely on human agency and instead considers the role of objects, technologies, and other non-human actors in shaping social phenomena. This theory has been applied in various fields, including science and technology studies, organizational theory, and environmental sociology.
57
Throughput Accounting
Eliyahu M. Goldratt
2002
Throughput Accounting is a management accounting approach that focuses on identifying and managing the factors that limit an organization's ability to generate more revenue. It recognizes that not all costs are equal and that some costs are more closely related to the organization's ability to generate revenue. Throughput Accounting emphasizes the importance of maximizing throughput or the rate at which an organization generates money through sales. This approach involves identifying and exploiting bottleneck processes that limit the organization's throughput. By doing so, organizations can increase their revenue and profitability.
58
Theory of Constraints
Eliyahu Goldratt
1984
The Theory of Constraints is a management philosophy focused on identifying and improving the constraints, or bottlenecks, in a system in order to increase overall efficiency and productivity. It was first introduced by Eliyahu M. Goldratt in his book "The Goal" and has since been applied in various industries and business settings. The theory emphasizes the importance of identifying the limiting factors in a system and implementing targeted solutions to alleviate them, rather than trying to improve every aspect of the system at once.
59
Approximation Theory
Tchebychev, Pafnuty Lvovich; Markov, Andrey Andreyevich
1947
Approximation theory is a branch of mathematics that deals with approximating functions by simpler or more manageable functions. It is a fundamental concept in numerical analysis and has applications in fields such as engineering, physics, and computer science. The goal of approximation theory is to find a function that is close enough to the original function, while also being easier to work with. This is achieved through various techniques such as polynomial interpolation, spline interpolation, and Fourier analysis. Overall, approximation theory plays a crucial role in many areas of modern science and technology.
60
Curse of Dimensionality
Richard Bellman and David Eppstein
1941
The Curse of Dimensionality is a phenomenon in which the difficulty of analyzing and processing data increases exponentially as the number of dimensions (or features) in the data increases. This is because as the number of dimensions increases, the amount of data required to cover the space increases exponentially, resulting in the data becoming increasingly sparse. This can lead to overfitting, where a model becomes too complex and fits the training data too closely, resulting in poor performance on unseen data. To avoid the Curse of Dimensionality, it is important to carefully consider the number of dimensions and features in your data, and to use techniques such as dimensionality reduction to reduce the complexity of the data.
61
Policy Theory
Charles Lindblom and David Easton
1984
Policy theory is a field of study that focuses on the development, implementation, and evaluation of public policies. It seeks to understand how policies are created, what factors influence their implementation, and how they are evaluated for effectiveness. This field draws from a variety of disciplines such as political science, sociology, economics, and psychology to provide a comprehensive understanding of the policy process. Some of the key concepts in policy theory include policy design, policy implementation, and policy evaluation.
62
Black Swan Theory
Nassim Nicholas Taleb
2007
The Black Swan Theory is a concept introduced by Nassim Nicholas Taleb that describes an event that is rare, unpredictable, and has significant impact. The term comes from the belief that black swans did not exist, as all observed swans were white, until black swans were discovered in Australia. In finance and economics, black swan events can cause major disruptions to markets and economies, as they are events that were not accounted for in models or predictions. The theory emphasizes the importance of being prepared for unexpected events and not relying solely on past data or trends.
63
Drum-Buffer-Rope (DBR) Theory
Eliyahu Goldratt
1986
Drum-Buffer-Rope (DBR) Theory is a production planning and control methodology that emphasizes identifying and managing constraints in manufacturing processes. The "drum" refers to the pace at which the system should operate, while the "buffer" represents the amount of inventory needed to protect the system from disruptions. The "rope" symbolizes the flow of work through the system, with work only released as capacity becomes available. DBR theory is often associated with the Theory of Constraints and is used in various industries to improve efficiency and reduce waste.
64
Red Queen hypothesis
Leigh Van Valen
1973
The Red Queen hypothesis is an evolutionary theory that suggests organisms must constantly adapt and evolve in order to survive and compete with other organisms in their environment. The name comes from the character in Lewis Carroll's "Through the Looking Glass" who says, "It takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place." This idea is often applied to explain the co-evolution of species, where each species must continually evolve to keep up with the adaptations of the other species they interact with.
65
Kellers Motivational Model
Keller
1979
Keller's Motivational Model is a theory of motivation that is used to explain how different types of motivational factors can influence an individual's behavior. The model is based on four main components: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. According to Keller, attention is the first step in the process of motivation, and it involves capturing the learner's interest and focusing their attention on the task at hand. Relevance is the second component and involves making sure that the learner understands how the task is relevant to their goals and interests. Confidence is the third component and involves building the learner's confidence in their ability to complete the task. Finally, satisfaction is the fourth component and involves providing the learner with feedback and encouragement to help them feel satisfied with their performance. Overall, Keller's Motivational Model provides a framework for understanding how different factors can influence an individual's motivation and behavior.
66
Social Capital Theory
James Coleman and Pierre Bourdieu
2001
Social Capital Theory suggests that social networks and relationships have value in and of themselves, and that the strength of these connections can bring benefits to individuals and communities. This theory has been applied to a range of contexts, from education and health to politics and economic development. Critics of the theory have questioned its emphasis on individual connections over broader social structures and inequalities.
67
Task-technology fit
Joe Valacich and Chris Kemerer
1992
Task-technology fit is a theory that focuses on the compatibility between the capabilities of technology and the demands of a task. The theory suggests that a good fit between technology and task can lead to increased productivity and efficiency. This can be achieved by carefully selecting and implementing technology that aligns with the specific requirements of a task. In essence, the theory emphasizes the importance of considering the unique characteristics of a task when selecting and implementing technology.
68
Consilience
Edward O. Wilson
1998
Consilience is the concept that different branches of knowledge can be interconnected and unified into a single, comprehensive understanding of the world. It was popularized by biologist E.O. Wilson in his book "Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge". The idea is that by applying a multidisciplinary approach, we can bridge the gaps between different fields and create a more complete understanding of the natural world. This can lead to new discoveries and innovations, and help us solve complex problems that would be difficult to tackle from a single-discipline perspective.
69
Garbage Can Theory
Michael D. Cohen, James G. March, and Johan P. Olsen.
1972
The Garbage Can Theory is a model that explains how organizations make decisions in complex and unpredictable environments. It suggests that decisions are not made in a linear, logical manner, but rather are the result of a complex interplay of factors, including the organization's goals, the problems it is facing, the solutions that are available, and the people who are involved. In this model, the decision-making process is often chaotic and messy, with different ideas and perspectives being thrown into the "garbage can" of decision-making and being sifted through until a solution emerges. Ultimately, the Garbage Can Theory highlights the importance of understanding the complex dynamics that shape decision-making in organizations, and the need to be flexible and adaptable in order to navigate these dynamics effectively.
70
Hermeneutics
Friedrich Schleiermacher, Wilhelm Dilthey, and Martin Heidegger.
The concept of Hermeneutics was first constructed in the year [insert year here].
Hermeneutics is the study of interpretation, particularly of written texts like the Bible or legal documents. It involves analyzing and understanding the meaning behind the words and phrases used in a text, as well as the context in which it was written. Hermeneutics is often used in theology, philosophy, and law to help interpret complex texts and make sense of their meaning.
71
Portfolio Theory
Harry Markowitz
1952
Portfolio Theory is a concept in finance that suggests investors can minimize risks and maximize returns by diversifying their investments across different asset classes. The theory proposes that by investing in a mix of assets with varying levels of risks and returns, investors can create a portfolio that balances risk and return in a way that meets their investment goals. The theory was first introduced by Harry Markowitz in 1952 and has since become a cornerstone of modern portfolio management.
72
Yield Shift Theory of Satisfaction
Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman
1979
The Yield Shift Theory of Satisfaction proposes that people's satisfaction is determined not only by their current situation, but also by how that situation compares to their past experiences and expectations. It suggests that people are more satisfied when they experience an improvement from their past situation, even if their current situation is objectively not as good as it could be. This theory has been applied in various fields, including marketing and psychology, to understand consumer behavior and decision-making.
73
Signalling Theory
Michael Spence and Joseph Stiglitz
1975
Signalling Theory is a concept in economics that suggests that one party can convey information to another party through signals or actions. The theory proposes that individuals or firms with a certain characteristic can signal their quality to others through actions that are too costly or difficult for those without that characteristic to imitate. This can help to distinguish between high-quality and low-quality individuals or products in the market. Signalling Theory has been applied in various fields, such as education, employment, and advertising.
74
Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT)
1962
The Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT) is a theory that describes how new ideas and innovations spread through a social system. It explains how and why some innovations are adopted more quickly than others and identifies the different stages that an innovation goes through before becoming widely accepted. IDT also considers the factors that influence the rate of adoption, such as the characteristics of the innovation itself, the characteristics of the individuals and groups that adopt it, and the communication channels used to spread the innovation. Overall, IDT has been widely used in fields such as marketing, technology, and public health to understand and predict the adoption of new products, services, and practices.
75
Task closure theory
Donald Super and John Holland
1979
Task closure theory proposes that people are motivated to complete tasks in order to achieve a sense of closure. This theory suggests that the desire for closure is a powerful motivator that drives people to take action and complete tasks, even when they encounter obstacles or challenges along the way. According to task closure theory, the experience of closure is satisfying and rewarding, and it can lead to increased well-being and happiness. This theory has been applied in a variety of fields, including psychology, business, and education, to help individuals and organizations achieve their goals and improve performance.
76
Structuration theory
Anthony Giddens
1984
Structuration theory, developed by sociologist Anthony Giddens, posits that individuals and society are created and sustained through social practices. It suggests that people are not simply shaped by the structures of society, but they also actively shape and create those structures through their actions. The theory emphasizes the duality of structure, where structures both constrain and enable action. In other words, structures provide a framework for action, but they are also constantly being produced and reproduced through individual actions and interactions. This theory has been influential in a variety of fields, including sociology, anthropology, and organizational studies.
77
Media richness theory
Richard L. Daft and Robert H. Lengel
1978
Media richness theory suggests that the effectiveness of communication depends on the richness of the medium used. The theory proposes that some media, like face-to-face communication, are more effective than others, like email or text messaging, because they allow for more immediate feedback and the transmission of nonverbal cues. The theory has been applied in various fields, including organizational communication and information systems, to help determine the most effective communication channels for different types of messages.
78
Contingency theory
Fred Fiedler and his colleagues
1964
Contingency theory is a leadership theory that suggests there is no one-size-fits-all approach to leadership. This theory proposes that the most effective leadership style is contingent upon various situational factors, such as the nature of the task, the characteristics of the followers, and the overall context. In other words, what works in one situation may not work in another. This theory has been influential in shaping leadership development programs and helping leaders adapt their style to different situations.
79
Administrative behavior theory
Herbert Simon and James G. March
1947
Administrative behavior theory is a management theory that focuses on the decision-making processes of managers within organizations. Developed by Herbert Simon in the mid-1900s, the theory suggests that managers make decisions based on bounded rationality, meaning they make decisions that are rational within the constraints of their knowledge, time, and cognitive abilities. The theory also emphasizes the importance of understanding the social and psychological factors that influence organizational behavior. Overall, administrative behavior theory provides insights into how managers can make effective decisions and improve organizational performance.
80
Absorptive capacity theory
Wesley M. Cohen and Daniel A. Levinthal
1990
Absorptive capacity theory is a concept in strategic management that refers to an organization's ability to acquire, assimilate, and apply new knowledge. The theory suggests that a firm's ability to innovate and adapt to changing environments is related to its ability to effectively absorb new information and use it to create new products, processes, and technologies. The concept emphasizes the importance of continuous learning and knowledge management within organizations.
81
SERVQUAL
Valarie Zeithaml, A. Parasuraman, and Leonard Berry are credited with originating the SERVQUAL theory.
1985
SERVQUAL is a framework for measuring service quality that was developed by Zeithaml, Parasuraman, and Berry in the 1980s. It consists of five dimensions: reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy, and tangibles. Each dimension is assessed using a set of questions that are designed to measure customer perceptions of the quality of the service provided. The SERVQUAL framework has been widely used in both academic research and in practice, and has been shown to be a useful tool for improving service quality.
82
Stakeholder Theory
R. Edward Freeman, Robert A. Phillips, and Joan E. Rossiter
1984
Stakeholder theory suggests that organizations should consider the interests of all stakeholders, not just shareholders, when making business decisions. This includes employees, customers, suppliers, and the community in which the organization operates. The theory argues that by taking into account the needs and expectations of all stakeholders, organizations can create value for society as a whole, rather than just for a select few. This can lead to long-term sustainability and success for the organization.
83
Group Theory
Emil Artin, Heinrich Brandt, and Otto Schreier.
1830
Group Theory is a branch of mathematics that studies symmetry and structure by examining the properties of groups. A group is a mathematical object consisting of a set of elements and an operation that combines any two elements to form a third element in such a way that four conditions called group axioms are satisfied. Group Theory has applications in various fields, including physics, chemistry, and computer science. It also has connections to other areas of mathematics, such as topology and number theory.
84
Gestalt Theory
Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka
The concept of Gestalt Theory was first constructed/derived in the year 1910.
The Gestalt theory is a psychological theory that emphasizes the importance of holistic perception, where the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. This theory suggests that when we perceive objects, we do not simply see a collection of individual elements, but we perceive the overall structure or organization of those elements. The theory was developed in the early 20th century by a group of German psychologists who believed that perception is an active process and that our brains organize sensory information into meaningful patterns. The Gestalt theory has had a significant impact on psychology and has been applied in various areas such as art, design, and education.
85
Consilience
Edward O. Wilson
1998
Consilience is the concept that different fields of knowledge can be interconnected and unified by a common set of principles. It suggests that there is a unity of knowledge, and that the boundaries between different fields are artificial. The term was coined by the biologist E.O. Wilson, who argued that consilience is essential for understanding complex systems and solving problems that require a multidisciplinary approach. The idea has been influential in fields such as philosophy, sociology, and ecology, and has led to renewed interest in interdisciplinary research and collaboration.
86
Community of Practice
Etienne Wenger and Jean Lave
1991
A community of practice is a group of people who share a common interest or profession and engage in regular interactions to develop and share knowledge and expertise. Members of a community of practice collaborate to solve problems, share best practices, and develop new ideas and approaches. The concept was first introduced by social theorists Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in the 1990s as a way to describe the informal networks of learning and knowledge exchange that exist within organizations and professional communities. Today, communities of practice are recognized as an important tool for fostering innovation, improving performance, and promoting professional development.
87
Constructivism
Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky
1990
Constructivism is a theory in education that emphasizes the importance of the learner's active participation in the learning process. It suggests that learners construct their own understanding of the world around them through experiences and reflection. This approach encourages learners to engage in hands-on activities, collaborate with others, and make connections between new information and their prior knowledge. Constructivism has been influential in shaping modern educational practices and has been applied in various fields, including psychology, sociology, and instructional design.
88
Decision Theory
John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern
1944
Decision theory is a branch of mathematics and philosophy that studies how individuals and groups make choices, especially when faced with uncertainty and risk. It involves analyzing and evaluating the possible outcomes of different choices, and determining the best course of action based on the available information. Decision theory has applications in many fields, including economics, psychology, political science, and artificial intelligence. Some of the key concepts in decision theory include expected utility, rationality, and game theory.
89
Inductive Bias
Ray Solomonoff and Jorma Rissanen.
1987
Inductive bias refers to the inherent assumptions or beliefs that an algorithm or model makes about a particular problem or dataset. These assumptions can influence the way the model interprets and generalizes from the data, which can impact its overall accuracy and performance. In machine learning, understanding and managing inductive bias is crucial for developing effective models that can accurately predict outcomes and make informed decisions.
90
Zone of Proximal Development
Lev Vygotsky
1978
The Zone of Proximal Development is a concept developed by psychologist Lev Vygotsky which refers to the range of tasks that a person can perform with guidance or assistance from someone more knowledgeable. It is the space between the level of independent performance and the level of potential performance with guidance. This theory emphasizes the importance of social interaction and collaboration in learning, as well as the role of a more knowledgeable other in facilitating learning and development.
91
Christopher Alexander's 15 Fundamental Properties
Christopher Alexander
1977
Christopher Alexander's 15 Fundamental Properties describe principles of good design that can be applied to architecture, urban planning, and other fields. These properties emphasize the importance of creating living spaces that are organic, adaptable, and responsive to the needs of their users. They include concepts such as "levels of scale," "positive outdoor space," and "access to nature," which can help designers create environments that are not only aesthetically pleasing, but also functional and sustainable. Overall, Alexander's 15 Fundamental Properties provide a useful framework for creating environments that promote well-being and human flourishing.
92
Transtheoretical Model
James O. Prochaska, Carlo DiClemente, and others
1982
The Transtheoretical Model is a psychological theory that explains how people change behavior. It is also known as the Stages of Change model and consists of five stages: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance. The model suggests that people go through these stages in a cyclical process and that successful behavior change requires the individual to progress through each stage. The Transtheoretical Model has been applied to various health behaviors such as smoking cessation, exercise adoption, and weight loss.
93
Homotopy Type Theory
Vladimir Voevodsky and a group of mathematicians including Michael Shulman, Steve Awodey, and Dan Licata are credited with originating Homotopy Type Theory.
2011
Homotopy Type Theory is a relatively new field of mathematics that seeks to bridge the gap between algebraic topology and type theory. It suggests that types can be thought of as topological spaces, and that the relationship between types can be studied through the lens of homotopy theory. This framework has the potential to provide new insights into both mathematics and computer science, and has already led to the development of new proof assistants and programming languages.
94
Critical Decision Theory
Ronald A. Howard, Ali E. Abbas, and Laura A. Albert
1982
Critical Decision Theory is a framework for decision-making that takes into account the potential consequences and risks associated with different options. It aims to help decision-makers make informed choices by considering the likelihood and severity of potential outcomes, as well as the values and preferences of stakeholders. This theory can be particularly useful in situations where the stakes are high and the consequences of a poor decision could be significant. By using critical decision theory, decision-makers can make more rational and defensible choices that are based on a thorough analysis of the available information.
95
Frequentist Probability Theory
Frequentist Probability Theory originated from Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat.
1920
Frequentist Probability Theory is a branch of statistics that focuses on the probability of an event occurring based on the frequency of its occurrence in a given sample or population. It assumes that the probability of an event can be estimated by analyzing the frequency of its occurrence in a large number of trials. This theory is widely used in various fields, such as finance, economics, and engineering, to make predictions and inform decision making. However, it has its limitations and is often criticized for its inability to account for subjective factors and prior knowledge.
96
Contrastivism
Edwin Mares and Jonathan Schaffer
2010
Contrastivism is a philosophical theory that argues that knowledge depends on contrasts. In other words, contrastivists believe that in order to know something, it must be compared and contrasted with other possibilities. This theory is often applied to the field of epistemology, which is the study of knowledge and belief. Contrastivism is a relatively new theory, but it has gained popularity in recent years due to its ability to explain some of the complexities of knowledge and belief.
97
Observer Theory
Arnold Mindell, Max Dehn, and Carl Jung.
1970
The Observer Theory suggests that the act of observing something can actually affect its behavior or outcome. This theory is often discussed in relation to quantum mechanics, where the act of measuring a particle's position can alter its momentum. The concept has also been applied to fields such as psychology, where the presence of an observer can influence the behavior of study participants.
98
Monotropic Theory
John Bowlby
1917
Monotropic Theory suggests that infants have a primary attachment to one person, usually the mother, and that this attachment provides a secure base from which the child can explore the world. This theory was developed by John Bowlby, a British psychoanalyst and psychiatrist, in the mid-20th century and has had a significant impact on our understanding of attachment and child development. According to this theory, a strong and secure attachment to a primary caregiver is essential for healthy emotional and social development in children.
99
Amdahl‘s Law
Amdahl
1967
Amdahl's Law is a principle in computer architecture that states that the speed improvement gained from using multiple processors in a system is limited by the portion of the program that cannot be parallelized. In other words, if a program has a portion that cannot be executed in parallel, then adding more processors will not significantly improve the program's overall speed. The formula for Amdahl's Law is: Speedup = 1 / [ (1 - P) + (P / N) ], where P is the portion of the program that can be parallelized, and N is the number of processors used.
100
Jevons Paradox
William Stanley Jevons
1865
Jevons Paradox is the observation that technological progress in increasing efficiency in resource use tends to increase rather than decrease the overall consumption of resources. This is because as efficiency increases, the cost of using a resource decreases, making it more attractive for people to use more of that resource. The paradox was first identified by William Stanley Jevons in the mid-19th century in relation to coal consumption in the UK. It has since been observed in many other areas of resource use, including energy, water, and materials.
101
Landauer's principle
Landauer's principle originated from Rolf Landauer.
1956
Landauer's principle is a theory in physics that states that there is a minimum amount of energy required to erase one bit of information, which is known as the Landauer limit. This limit has important implications for the design and operation of digital devices and has been the subject of much research in the field of nanotechnology.
102
Fermi Paradox
Enrico Fermi
1950
The Fermi Paradox is the apparent contradiction between the high probability of the existence of extraterrestrial civilizations and the lack of evidence for, or contact with, such civilizations. This paradox was first posed by physicist Enrico Fermi in 1950 and has since sparked numerous debates and hypotheses attempting to explain the silence of the universe. Some of the proposed explanations include the possibility of self-destruction, the rareness of life or intelligence, and the limitations of our technology and communication methods. Despite the ongoing search for extraterrestrial life, the Fermi Paradox remains an intriguing and unsolved mystery.
103
Trait Driver Theory
Raymond Cattell and John Horn.
1917
Trait Driver Theory proposes that individuals possess a set of core traits that drive their behavior and decision-making. These traits are believed to be stable over time and across situations, and they interact with environmental factors to influence behavior. The theory has been applied in various fields, including psychology, organizational behavior, and marketing, to better understand human behavior and predict outcomes.
104
Autopoiesis
Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela
1972
Autopoiesis is a theory proposed by Maturana and Varela that describes the self-maintaining and self-reproducing nature of living systems. The term "autopoiesis" comes from the Greek words "auto" (self) and "poiesis" (creation or production). According to this theory, living systems are characterized by their ability to continuously create and maintain themselves through a network of processes that involve the exchange of matter and energy with their environment. This theory has been applied to many different fields, including biology, philosophy, and cognitive science.
105
Media Ecology
Marshall McLuhan and Walter Ong
1964
Media ecology is a theoretical framework that explores the relationship between communication technologies, media, and human society. It examines how communication technologies shape and are shaped by human culture, and how they influence our perceptions, behaviors, and interactions. Media ecology also considers the ecological impact of communication technologies, including their effects on the natural environment and on social and political systems. This theory emphasizes the importance of understanding the complex interactions between technology, media, and society in order to create a more sustainable and equitable future.
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