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2. Varieties of Civilizations

Civilizations of the Americas

two major, long-established centers of civilization

Mesoamerica

Andes

little if any direct contact with each other

Environment

enormous range of microclimates

great ecological, biological diversity

rugged, mountainous

arid coastal environments

steamy lowland rainforests

cold and windy highland plateaus with numerous mountains and valleys

Mesoamerica

central Mexico to northern Central America

distinct region with common culture

intensive agriculture technology

maize

beans

chili peppers

squash

economies based on market exchange

religion

pantheon of male and female deities

time is a common cycle of creation and destruction

practiced

human sacrifice⁠

⁠

constructed monumental ceremonial centers

common ritual calendar

common hieroglyphic writing

first civilization: Olmec, 1200 BCE

civilizations regularly emerged, flourished, declined

Maya civilization

modern-day Guatemala and Yucatán region of Mexico

250-900 CE

collapsed with completeness and finality rare in world history

Accomplishments

substantial urban centers with

pyramids

temples

palaces

public plazas

painted murals

stone carvings

most elaborate writing system in Americas

both pictographs and phonetic/syllabic elements

mathematical system

concept of 0

place notation, making complex calculations possible

Political system

highly fragmented

city-states

local lords

regional kingdoms

no central authority

frequent warfare

Aztec Empire

1345-1528

last and largest of Mesoamerican states before Spanish conquered the region in early 16th

Formation

Mexica (meh-SHEEH-kah) people

semi-nomadic

from northern Mexico

migrated southward, established on small island in Lake Texcoco by 1325

developed military capacity

served as mercenaries for more powerful people

negotiated elite marriage alliances

built up capital city of

Tenochtitlán⁠

(te-nawch-tee-tlahn)

1428: Triple Alliance

Mexica and two nearby city-states

launched highly aggressive military conquest program

in less than 100 years: brought more of Mesoamerica together into single political framework than ever before

Aztec authorities now claimed descent from earlier Mesoamerican peoples

eager to shed undistinguished past

emphasized continuity of Mesoamerican civilization

Structure

loosely structured

unstable conquest state

population: 5-6 million people

frequent rebellions by its subjects

conquered peoples/cities required

provide labor for Aztec projects

deliver stuff to Aztec rulers

textiles and clothing

military supplies

jewelry and other luxuries

various foodstuffs

animal products

building materials

rubber balls

paper

overseen by local imperial tribute collectors

sent required goods to Tenochtilán where they were meticulously recorded

Capital: Tenochtilán

150-200,000 people

numerous canals, dikes, causeways, bridges

central walled area of palaces, temples

included pyramid nearly 200ft tall

surrounding city: floating gardens

artificial islands

created from swamplands called chinampas

supported highly productive agriculture

vast marketplaces

reflected commercialization of economy

Religion (human sacrifice)

human sacrifice very important

often slaves captured in war (“those who have died for the god”)

unusually prominent role

Tlacaelel (1398-1480), prominent official of Aztec Empire, credited with the ideology of state that made human sacrifice so important

sun tended to lose energy in constant battle against encroaching darkness

sun is central to all life

sun identified with patron deity Huizilopochtli (wee-tree-loh-pockt-lee)

sun required life-giving force found in human blood

gods shed blood ages ago to create humankind, so proper for people to offer their own blood to nourish the gods

high calling of Aztec state is to provide this blood

largely to wars of expansion

growth of Aztec Empire is means for maintaining cosmic empire, avoiding catastrophe

shaped Aztec politics

emphasis on capturing prisoners rather than killing enemy

priests and rulers became mutually dependent

The Andes

bleak deserts along the coast

only supported human habitation because of the dozens of rivers flowing down from the mountains

offshore waters of Pacific Ocean

enormously rich marine environment

endless supply of seabirds, fish

Andes mountains

many highland valleys

numerous distinct ecological niches depending on altitude

resources acquired through colonization, conquest, trade

seafood from coastal regions

maize and cotton from lower-altitude valleys

potatoes, quinoa, pastureland for llamas from high plains

tropical fruits, coca leaves from moist eastern slope of Andes

Inca Empire

1438-1533

early 1400s: relatively small community of Quechua-speaking people, known as Incas, built empire along almost entire spine of Andes Mountains

incorporated lands and cultures of earlier Andean civilizations

larger than Aztec Empire

2,500 miles along Andes

10 million subjects

Politics

bureaucratic and intrusive

top: emperor

absolute ruler

divine

descendant of creator god Viracocha

son of sun god Into

each of the ~80 provinces had a governor

state theoretically owned all land and resources

in practice, state lands (“lands of the sun”) existed along properties owned by temples, elites, traditional communities

local officials incorporated into Inca administration

supervised by Inca governor or emperor

Religion (human sacrifice)

Both: gender parallelism

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