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5. Revolutions

1750-1900

5.1 The Enlightenment

Scientific Revolution

Intellectual transformation

knowledge acquired based on inquiry based on evidence

observation, deduction, experimentation (scientific method)

no longer relying on authority of Bible/Church

no divine revelations

Significance

challenged the Church’s teachings and authority

Earth/humanity no longer at the center of universe

challenged social hierarchies and the political system (Enlightenment)

used to legitimize gender and racial hierarchies (sexism/racism)

new technology led to Industrial Revolution and modern warfare

Why Europe?

universities had autonomy to pursue knowledge free from church and state

Old World knowledge met New World knowledge

Reformation: encouraged challenging authority, mass literacy

Scientific leaders

Copernicus: earth revolves around sun

Kepler: elliptical orbits; laws of planetary motion

Galileo: telescope showed unlimited universe; humankind tiny aspect

Newton: gravity; laws of physics; universe functions on scientific laws

almost no female scholars in Scientific Revolution

most women were excluded from universities

those who participated were wealthy or “assistants” to husbands

Margaret Cavendish (married to Duke): wrote six scientific texts

Maria Winkelmann: discovered a comet; husband took credit

Science and church

many scientists/mathematicians were Jesuits

focus on education; scientific missionaries to Asia

no scientist Christianity

believed science and religion could coexist

Catholic Church opposed new scientific ideas

Enlightenment

Age of Reason

universe is rational, runs by natural laws that can be understood using logic

rationalism: humans capable of using reason to gain knowledge

could make up own minds; did not need kings or church

progressivism: humans could improve society and eliminate problems

Enlightenment leaders

Adam Smith: laws of operation for the economy (i.e. capitalism)

John Locke: social contract (democracy) challenged divine right of kings

Montesquieu: separation of powers in government

Voltaire: religious tolerance challenges Church; freedom of speech

male Enlightenment thinkers unwilling to support feminism

Mary Wollstonecraft: women’s equality and women’s rights

Olympe de Gouges: women’s rights, abolition of slavery

Backlash

Romantic movement: emotion over reason; imagination over scientific learning

religious awakenings in Europe and North America

Influential ideas

opposition to absolute monarchy: no ruler should have unlimited power

separation of powers: power should be distributed across different branches of government

liberty and individual rights: all men possess natural rights to life, liberty, and property

equality: all men are created equal; no one should be born into more power than another

free-market capitalism: government should allow markets to operate with minimal regulations

Repercussions

Abolition movement

began in Britain

religious: slavery was crime in the eyes of God

secular: slavery violated ideas of Enlightenment

political: slave revolts in Haiti, Jamaica

economic: slavery no longer essential for economic progress

slave economies resisted

slave trade to Brazil/Cuba continued; African nations still sold slaves

USA: took highly destructive civil war to free slaves (1861-1865)

freedom didn’t mean equality

former slaves’ lives often did not improve

exploited, low-paid labor often replaced slave labor (e.g. sharecropping in US)

political rights usually denied; harsh segregation laws

Haiti: only country to redistribute land; gave full political power to former slaves

Feminism

Enlightenment: equality for all?

maternal feminism: mothers of citizens must be true citizens themselves

women in industrializing nations

growing economic success/middle-class allowed women more freedoms

sought educational opportunities

took part in social movements (temperance, abolition, social work)

first wave of feminism (mostly middle- and upper-class whites)

Women’s Rights Convention: Seneca Falls, NY 1848

Elizabeth Cady Stanton: Declaration of the Rights of Women

main issues:

access to education and professions

suffrage (right to vote)

spread globally

education of women seen as way to strengthen economy and nations

Kartini (Java, Indonesia) advocated for opening schools for girls

Empress Haruko (Japan) advocated for education of girls/family planning

Huda Sharawi (Egypt) fought for Egyptian independence and rights for women

reactions

feminists viewed as selfish, willing to sacrifice their families

often seen as against nationalism

Nationalism

development

people identified with their local village; no connection to larger empire/nation

independence movements focused on unifying a “nation” with distinct cultures

creation of new nations

unification of Italy (1870), Germany (1871)

Greeks (1829) and Serbs (1867) gained independence from Ottoman Empire

Czechs and Hungarians demanded more authority

Poles and Ukrainians began advocating for independence from Russia

Irish sought “home rule” and separation from Great Britain

Lola Rodríguez de Tió: called for Puerto Rican independence

created division

increased rivalries and competition between countries; led to war (World War I, Mexican-American War)

governments tried to create a “shared culture” that devalued diversity

national languages

cultural assimilation

racial ideals

5.2 Nationalism and revolutions

Comparisons

Common ideas

political, social arrangements could be engineered and improved

challenged long-established ways of thinking

divine right of kings

aristocratic privilege

authority of single church

supported Enlightenment ideas

liberty, equality, religious tolerance, republicanism

popular sovereignty: right to govern comes from people

social contract between ruler and people could be broken

Connections between leaders

Marquis de Lafayette (French) fought in American Revolution

Thomas Jefferson (American) was advisor to French in their revolution

Simón Bolívar (Latin American) got military aid from Haiti

Who benefited

chief beneficiaries were white men of property (exception: Haiti)

women, slaves, natives poor white men did not gain much

used Enlightenment ideas in future revolutions

American Revolution

Before

class distinctions; more open than in Britain

lots of available land (stolen from natives) for small population

no titled nobility or single established church

no legal distinctions between commoners and aristocrats

all free men had same legal status

less poverty, more economic opportunity than in Britain

good amount of political autonomy & self-government

colonists came to regard autonomy as their birthright

no one wanted to break away from British Empire

advantages: protection in war; access to British markets

Causes

Britain needed money after Seven Years’ War with France

raised taxes on colonies

colonies did not have representation in Parliament

colonists resented Britain trying to reestablish imperial power

popular sovereignty, natural rights, consent of the governed justified revolution

1776: Thomas Jefferson wrote Declaration of Independence

1781: victory against British Army (with help from the French)

1787: US Constitution is written but not ratified until 1789

5.1 The Enlightenment

Scientific Revolution

Intellectual transformation

Enlightenment leaders

5.2 Nationalism and revolutions

Comparisons

Common ideas

Connections between leaders

Latin American revolutions

5.3, 5.5 Industrial Revolution begins, technologies

Agricultural Revolution

Before

Change in farming techniques

Enclosure Movement

Beginnings

Great Britain

First Industrial Revolution (1760-1840)

Second Industrial Revolution (1870-1914)

Innovations, advancements

Energy revolution

Technological revolution

Transportation revolution

5.4, 5.6 Industrialization spreads, government’s role

Russia

Beginnings of modernization

Similarities to Britain

Differences to Britain

United States

Similarities to Britain

Differences to Britain

Ottoman Empire

“Sick man” of Europe

Defensive modernization

Egypt (failed)

Vassal of Ottoman Empire

Muhammad Ali Pasha

Suez Canal

Japan

Isolation → Intrusion

Treaty of Kanagawa

Modernization

5.7, 5.8 Economic developments, reactions

Political parties

Capitalism

Socialism

New political parties

British reform movements

Worker movements

Suffrage (right to vote)

5.9 Society and the industrial age

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