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knowledge acquired based on inquiry based on evidenceobservation, deduction, experimentation (scientific method)no longer relying on authority of Bible/Churchno divine revelations
challenged the Church’s teachings and authorityEarth/humanity no longer at the center of universechallenged social hierarchies and the political system (Enlightenment)used to legitimize gender and racial hierarchies (sexism/racism)new technology led to Industrial Revolution and modern warfare
universities had autonomy to pursue knowledge free from church and stateOld World knowledge met New World knowledgeReformation: encouraged challenging authority, mass literacy
Copernicus: earth revolves around sunKepler: elliptical orbits; laws of planetary motionGalileo: telescope showed unlimited universe; humankind tiny aspectNewton: gravity; laws of physics; universe functions on scientific lawsalmost no female scholars in Scientific Revolutionmost women were excluded from universitiesthose who participated were wealthy or “assistants” to husbandsMargaret Cavendish (married to Duke): wrote six scientific textsMaria Winkelmann: discovered a comet; husband took credit
many scientists/mathematicians were Jesuitsfocus on education; scientific missionaries to Asiano scientist Christianitybelieved science and religion could coexistCatholic Church opposed new scientific ideas
universe is rational, runs by natural laws that can be understood using logicrationalism: humans capable of using reason to gain knowledgecould make up own minds; did not need kings or churchprogressivism: humans could improve society and eliminate problems
Adam Smith: laws of operation for the economy (i.e. capitalism)John Locke: social contract (democracy) challenged divine right of kingsMontesquieu: separation of powers in governmentVoltaire: religious tolerance challenges Church; freedom of speechmale Enlightenment thinkers unwilling to support feminismMary Wollstonecraft: women’s equality and women’s rightsOlympe de Gouges: women’s rights, abolition of slavery
Romantic movement: emotion over reason; imagination over scientific learningreligious awakenings in Europe and North America
opposition to absolute monarchy: no ruler should have unlimited powerseparation of powers: power should be distributed across different branches of governmentliberty and individual rights: all men possess natural rights to life, liberty, and propertyequality: all men are created equal; no one should be born into more power than anotherfree-market capitalism: government should allow markets to operate with minimal regulations
began in Britainreligious: slavery was crime in the eyes of Godsecular: slavery violated ideas of Enlightenmentpolitical: slave revolts in Haiti, Jamaicaeconomic: slavery no longer essential for economic progressslave economies resistedslave trade to Brazil/Cuba continued; African nations still sold slavesUSA: took highly destructive civil war to free slaves (1861-1865)freedom didn’t mean equalityformer slaves’ lives often did not improveexploited, low-paid labor often replaced slave labor (e.g. sharecropping in US)political rights usually denied; harsh segregation lawsHaiti: only country to redistribute land; gave full political power to former slaves
Enlightenment: equality for all?maternal feminism: mothers of citizens must be true citizens themselveswomen in industrializing nationsgrowing economic success/middle-class allowed women more freedomssought educational opportunitiestook part in social movements (temperance, abolition, social work)first wave of feminism (mostly middle- and upper-class whites)Women’s Rights Convention: Seneca Falls, NY 1848Elizabeth Cady Stanton: Declaration of the Rights of Womenmain issues:access to education and professionssuffrage (right to vote)spread globallyeducation of women seen as way to strengthen economy and nationsKartini (Java, Indonesia) advocated for opening schools for girlsEmpress Haruko (Japan) advocated for education of girls/family planningHuda Sharawi (Egypt) fought for Egyptian independence and rights for womenreactionsfeminists viewed as selfish, willing to sacrifice their familiesoften seen as against nationalism
developmentpeople identified with their local village; no connection to larger empire/nationindependence movements focused on unifying a “nation” with distinct culturescreation of new nationsunification of Italy (1870), Germany (1871)Greeks (1829) and Serbs (1867) gained independence from Ottoman EmpireCzechs and Hungarians demanded more authority Poles and Ukrainians began advocating for independence from RussiaIrish sought “home rule” and separation from Great BritainLola Rodríguez de Tió: called for Puerto Rican independencecreated divisionincreased rivalries and competition between countries; led to war (World War I, Mexican-American War)governments tried to create a “shared culture” that devalued diversitynational languagescultural assimilationracial ideals
political, social arrangements could be engineered and improvedchallenged long-established ways of thinkingdivine right of kingsaristocratic privilegeauthority of single churchsupported Enlightenment ideasliberty, equality, religious tolerance, republicanismpopular sovereignty: right to govern comes from peoplesocial contract between ruler and people could be broken
Marquis de Lafayette (French) fought in American RevolutionThomas Jefferson (American) was advisor to French in their revolutionSimón Bolívar (Latin American) got military aid from Haiti
chief beneficiaries were white men of property (exception: Haiti)women, slaves, natives poor white men did not gain muchused Enlightenment ideas in future revolutions
class distinctions; more open than in Britainlots of available land (stolen from natives) for small populationno titled nobility or single established churchno legal distinctions between commoners and aristocratsall free men had same legal statusless poverty, more economic opportunity than in Britaingood amount of political autonomy & self-governmentcolonists came to regard autonomy as their birthrightno one wanted to break away from British Empireadvantages: protection in war; access to British markets
Britain needed money after Seven Years’ War with Franceraised taxes on coloniescolonies did not have representation in Parliamentcolonists resented Britain trying to reestablish imperial powerpopular sovereignty, natural rights, consent of the governed justified revolution1776: Thomas Jefferson wrote Declaration of Independence1781: victory against British Army (with help from the French)1787: US Constitution is written but not ratified until 1789
conservative movement; attempted to preserve liberties, not make new onesaccelerated pre-existing democratic ideasno large social transformationpolitical authority remained in hands of white male elitesgradually eroded as suffrage expandedland, possessions not seized from pro-British Loyalistsslavery remained in South; gradual abolition in North
model for future revolutionsDeclaration of Independence, Constitution, Bill of Rights copied by othersinspired future revolutions1800: Simón Bolívar in Latin American Revolutionsearly 1900s: Irish Home Rulelate 1900s: Ho Chi Minh in Vietnamearly 2000s: Arab Spring
three estates (ancien régime)First: clergy (0.5%; paid no taxes; owned 10% of land)Second: nobles (1.5%; exempt from most taxes; owned 25% of land)Third: else (98%; paid all taxes; owned 65% of land)
France needed money after Seven Years’ War with BritainKing Louis XVI called Estates General to raise taxes on Third EstateThird Estate protested increase in taxesorganized National Assembly; claimed sole authority to make lawsTennis Court Oath forced new constitution on king of Francewrote Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: “men are born and remain free and equal in rights”
huge social upheavalconstitutional monarchy → republic → military dictatorshippassed law for universal male suffrage (never implemented)eliminated class distinctions; everyone is a citizen, no titles of nobilityreligious freedom to Jews, Protestantsabolished slavery (temporarily)women played significant roleStorming of the Bastille Prison (July 1789) with weapons and gunpowderWomen’s March on Versailles (Oct 1789) over bread shortagesmade demands for political authority; not grantedRobespierre’s Reign of Terror (1793-1794)enemies of the revolution were executed by guillotineKing Louis XVIQueen Marie AntoinetteRobespierre executed for leading France into tyranny
neighboring countries felt threatened by French Revolutiondeclared war on France to try to return monarchyGeneral Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in 1799declared self emperor of Francecampaign of conquest to spread revolution in Europeplaced relatives on thrones of European countriescreated largest European empire since Romansdefeated after a failed invasion of Russia; exiled to Elbamonarch restored under Louis XVIIINapoleon escaped Elba; ruled for another 100 daysdefeated by coalition led by British, Prussian at Waterloo (1815)Congress of ViennaRussia, Austria, Britain, France met, led by Prussia (Klemens von Metternich)France gave up lands conquered by Napoleonnations around France strengthened; kings returned to thronesConcert of Europe: series of alliances to prevent future revolutions1848: massive wave of revolutions in Europe; most failedFranceGermanyPolandItalyDenmarkAustrian Empire
Saint Domingue was wealthiest colony in Caribbean (40% of world’s sugar, 50% of world’s coffee)heavily-tiered social structure based on racegrands blancs: plantation owners, merchants, lawyerspetits blancs: poor whites (~40,000 grands and petits blancs)gens de couleur libres: free people of color; usually mixed-race (~30,000)African slaves (~500,000)
slavery conditions (worst in world; 50% death rate)French planters learned of French Revolutiongrands blancs: wanted greater autonomy, fewer economic restrictionspetits blancs: wanted equality of citizenship for all whitesgens de couleur libres: wanted equal treatment for all free peopleslaves: saw French Revolution as a promise of personal freedom1791: rumor that French king declared end of slaveryslaves burned 1000 plantations, killed hundreds of white and mixed-race people
Toussant L’Ouverture; former slave, led slave armyorganized military to fight French, Spanish, Britishdefeated Napoleon’s attempt to reestablish controlviolent, bloodyend of slaveryslaves became equal, free, independent citizensdefined citizenship as “Black”; disallowed citizenship for most whitedestroyed plantation-based economyland redistributed among former slaves, free Black people
only completely successful slave revolt in world historyslave owners in other colonies worried that revolts would spreadinspired Great Jamaica Revolt (1832)
5. Revolutions
1750-1900
5.1 The Enlightenment
Scientific Revolution
Intellectual transformation
Significance
Why Europe?
Scientific leaders
Science and church
Enlightenment
Age of Reason
Enlightenment leaders
Backlash
Influential ideas
Repercussions
Abolition movement
Feminism
Nationalism
5.2 Nationalism and revolutions
Comparisons
Common ideas
Connections between leaders
Who benefited
American Revolution
Before
Causes
Domestic impact
Foreign impact
French Revolution
Before
Causes
Domestic impact
Foreign impact
Haitian Revolution
Before
Causes
Domestic impact
Foreign impact
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